Theotokos, the Blessed Virgin

ANTONIA ATANASSOVA

The Blessed Virgin Mary has an indisput­able place of honor in Orthodox Christian­ity. She is revered as “our all-holy immaculate, most blessed, and glorious Lady Theotokos and Ever-Virgin Mary,” for through her the Word of God becomes incarnate. In Scripture her special status is foretold in the words of the angel Gabriel for whom she is “blessed among women” and “full of grace” (Lk. 1.26–38). Mary’s motherhood serves in restoring the rela­tionship between God and the human race, in fulfillment of Isaiah’s prophecy of a virgin bearing a son who is “God with us” (Isa. 7.14). Her quiet acceptance of God’s will: “Here am I, the servant of the Lord; let it be with me according to your word,” her magnificent song of praise extolling God’s care for the lowly (Lk. 1.46–55), and the blessing she receives from Elizabeth, the mother of John the Baptist, mark the incarnation as a pivotal moment of history, and Mary as the ideal follower of God. Throughout the course of her son’s minis­try, the Virgin plays a central role, from its inception at the wedding in Cana, where her intervention leads to the first sign of Jesus’ exalted destiny, to its bitter fulfillment at the foot of the cross where Jesus commits her into the beloved disciple’s care (Jn. 2.1–11; 19.25–7). In sum, the evangelists’ account of Christ’s life and mission recognizes the presence ofhis mother as no less than indis­pensable to the unfolding of the divine economy.

Scriptural references to Mary are further supplemented by a variety of beliefs widely held in Orthodoxy, many of which stem from devotional practices. In the popular apocryphon The Protoevangelium of James, Mary is described as a “creature of excep­tional purity” set aside for a divine purpose from the moment of her conception. We meet her parents, Joachim and Anna, who surrender their only child in service to the Temple in Jerusalem and leave her there throughout her childhood, to converse with angels and weave a scarlet and purple veil for the Holy of Holies. Eventually, the Virgin leaves the Temple to be betrothed to Joseph and even in the context of her marriage remains perpetually virginal, since Jesus’ brothers and sisters mentioned in Scripture are traditionally considered to be a part of a larger kinship group, not the offspring of Mary and Joseph. Orthodox traditions speak of Mary as receiving special revelation of Christ’s resurrection at the first Pascha, and after Jesus’ ascension tell of her being accompanied by John the Evangelist to Ephesus. Many devotional writings from the 6th century describe how she “falls asleep” in Jerusalem, surrounded by the apostles, and as her grave is opened to show her body to the latecomer, Thomas, it turns out to be empty. The liturgical hymns commemorating the greatest Marian feast, the day of her Dormition (August 15), sing of how Mary has joined the Lord in heaven, in body and soul. This glorious exaltation of the Virgin stands in Orthodoxy as a sign of eschatological hope and a foretaste of the reward reserved for the blessed at the end of time.

Historically speaking, the collage between scriptural record and traditions of piety provoked from early times the need for an explanation as to how and why the presence of the Virgin is essential to the Christian faith. Orthodox Marian theology developed in close correspondence with larger christological questions about the authenticity of Jesus’ humanity, the manner of the incarnation, and the nature of the union of natures in Christ. It is a recurring motif and principle that the glorification of the Virgin Mary stems from her contribution to the incarnation, as explic­itly stated in the Symbol of Faith accepted at the Council of Nicea (325). Far from being a mere footnote to the christological question, the recognition granted to Mary is a necessary corollary of the fact that, in her womb, the Word of God is made flesh “for our salvation.”

The veneration of Mary as the one who gives birth to God (Theotokos) originated in Alexandria as early as the 3rd century, marking a rising tide of Marian piety that would soon encompass the Eastern Christian Empire. The title did not gain universal acceptance immediately, and in 427 the Syrian archbishop of Constantino­ple, Nestorius, challenged it as reminiscent of paganism and logically untenable. He proposed that Mary be called christotokos (Christ-bearer), that is, mother only of the human nature of the incarnate Son. His opponent Cyril, archbishop of Alexandria, saw the rejection of the Theo­tokos title as a direct assault on the unity of the person of the Lord, on the creed of Nicea, and the legacy of the fathers. For Cyril, the title encapsulated the very meaning of salvation by underscoring the double generation of the Divine Logos: the “incomprehensible manner” of the Son’s generation from the Father and the fact that “for our sake he economically underwent a self-emptying” (McGuckin 1994: 321, 324). In the Virgin’s womb, Cyril argued, the union between God and humanity becomes a reality whose ultimate goal is the restoration and sanctification of all creation in God. Accordingly, to recog­nize and confess Mary as Theotokos is a safeguard against heretical perceptions of the christological union. At the Council of Ephesus in 431, Cyril’s Marian theology was vindicated and the title Theotokos was confirmed as a fitting designation ofMary’s special status in salvation history. It would also form an integral part of the theological definition of Christ’s personhood promul­gated at the Council of Chalcedon in 451.

To this principal Marian title of Theotokos, the Council of Constantinople added a second one of Aei-Parthenos or “Ever-Virgin” (553). Mary’s perpetual virginity, before, during, and after Jesus’ birth, is a fundamental tenet of Orthodox incarnational theology; it illustrates the divine identity of her son as well as her own cooperation in the history of salvation. Iconographically, its symbolism is conveyed by three stars embroidered on the Virgin’s veil (mapharion). Its theological signi­ficance is well attested in early Christian literature and a parallel is often drawn between the two archetypal virgins, Mary and Eve. Unlike her biblical counterpart, Mary the Second Virgin proves herself to be obedient and faithful. Her virtue reverses the divine condemnation of Eve which has led the female race to lust after a husband and bear children in pain (cf. Gen. 2.16). In the words of Proclus, 5th-century arch­bishop of Constantinople, Mary’s virginal womb is the bridal chamber uniting God and creation where she gives birth without pain (Constas 2003: 263).

The Virgin Mary is the perfect prototype of a pure and holy life and the primary model for a life of asceticism and self­denial. Unsurprisingly, the first recorded Marian appearance in the church is in a vision ascribed to the ascetic Gregory Thaumaturgus (PG 46:1133D-1136B). Gregory of Nyssa, who relates the story of the apparition, praises Mary’s chastity, her purity of body and soul, as a “frontier between life and death” reestablished by faithful Christians in the act of imitating Mary’s piety. Textual evidence is com­plemented by formal cultic recognition of Mary as the champion of virginity as early as the 4th century, with the Jerusalem feast of the Hypapante celebrating Mary’s purification and Jesus’ presentation in the Temple. Another feast dedicated to the commemoration of Mary and the merits of virginity is recorded in Constantinople in the first half of the 5th century; most likely, it formed part of the Nativity liturgical cycle. During the 5th-century Theotokos controversy in Constantinople, this feast provided the occasion for Proclus’ delivery of the first of several influential Marian homilies in the presence of Nestorius himself. Proclus praised Mary with the support of the monks and the ascetics who proved to be most vocal defenders of the Theotokos. In line with this tradition, the Virgin Mary is considered to be the primary benefactor and protectress of the autono­mous monastic republic on Mount Athos, often described as “the garden ofthe Virgin.” In the broader sense, the Theotokos is revered in Orthodoxy as the paragon of holiness to which the church, the bride of God, aspires as a whole. In this context Mary is a shining example of the rewards of a life of humility and obedience to God, the greatest of all the saints, and an eschatological inter­cessor at the throne of Christ.

The formal recognition of Mary in the doctrines of the church is complemented and (as in in the case of Ephesus 431) even pre-dated by a steady rise of her promi­nence in liturgical life and devotional practice. Early Marian veneration was espe­cially notable in Constantinople, the capital city which, according to Byzantine legend, was dedicated to the Virgin by Constantine himself. The cult of Mary developed there under generous imperial patronage with the building of three major churches commem­orating the Virgin: the Blachernae, the Hodegoi, and the Chalkoprateia. Priceless Marian relics and objects of pilgrimage were kept in those establishments, including the Virgin’s belt and veil. Devotional objects related to Mary and Marian icons were exhibited on the city walls and carried not only in liturgical processions, but also in battle, by both Byzantine and Slav rulers, fortifying popular acclaim of the Virgin and highlighting her intercessory and protective powers (the Akathist designates her as Promacheia – “defending warrior”). The Virgin’s glorification as the defender of the Christian empire and a military and civil leader par excellence is amply reflected in iconic depictions of Mary enthroned with the holy child in her lap and surrounded by angels and saints. In the Eastern Christian world victories on the battlefield and mirac­ulous rescue were often ascribed to the Virgin. In Byzantium the Virgin protected her city from Slav, Persian, and Arab ene­mies; in Russia, miracle-working Marian icons were thought to have repeatedly saved Moscow, Kiev, and Novgorod from invasion. The Russian liturgical calendar records three occasions when the Virgin of

Vladimir is said to have delivered Russia from the Tatars (Tradigo 2006: 28).

The fervor of Marian devotion reflects the fact that, by virtue of its intimate con­nection with the Savior, Mary is uniquely suited for the role of the most effective intercessor the church has on its behalf. The earliest extant prayer to the Theotokos (sub tuum praesidium) evokes the eagerness with which her protection was sought: “Under your mercy we take refuge, Theoto­kos, do not reject our supplications but deliver us from danger” (Limberis 1994: 104). In Eastern Christian art this entrusting of the prayers of the faithful to the Virgin would come to be depicted in the iconic composition of the Deisis, a grouping of Christ enthroned in glory with his mother to his right and John the Baptist to his left. As the iconostasis screen developed in Orthodox churches, the Deisis would come to be situated in its upper center, emphasiz­ing the value and importance attributed to the Virgin’s intercession. As a result of a Marian vision to St. Andrew the Fool in the church of the Blachernae, the Virgin’s protective powers also acquired a separate liturgical feast, called the Feast of Protection or the Feast of the Protecting Veil (Pokrov, October 1/14), which remains highly pop­ular in Russia.

Icon-centered liturgical iconography in the East uses Marian depictions in a variety of settings and always in a place of pro­minence. Traditionally, Mary’s image is found above the sanctuary (Virgin platytera; “More Spacious than the Heavens”), where she presides over the consecration of the Eucharist as the Mother of the incarnate Word and a symbol of the church. The annunciation scene with Mary and the angel Gabriel bringing her the good news, flanks the royal doors leading to the altar area in Orthodox churches; the Deisis scene is situated above them. Mary is the central figure in icons related to her liturgical feasts: her nativity (September 8) and presentation in the Temple (November 21), the annun­ciation (March 2) and her Dormition (August 15), the post-Easter Feast of the Theotokos Life Giving Font, and the Pro­tection of the Theotokos. An additional number of iconic types illustrate her instru­mentality in the divine economy and the many roles she would come to play in response to the spiritual needs of the faith­ful. Marian typology is embedded in her depictions as a burning bush, an enclosed garden, and an unfading rose; other icono- graphic formulas have her nursing the holy child, contemplating the inevitability of his passion, or lamenting his death. The best known of those formulas is the canonical representation of the Virgin as Hodegetria (“The One Who Shows Us the Way”), in which Mary offers her child to the world as the way to salvation. A variation of the Hodegetria evolved into the image of the Virgin Eleousa (“Virgin of Mercy or Lovingkindness”), particularly widespread in the Balkans and in Russia. The Virgin of Vladimir is a famous example of the mixing of the Eleousa type and the Virgin of the Passion; the mutual embrace of mother and child in this icon reflects Mary’s role as an intercessor as well as offering the assurance that Christ listens to his mother’s prayers. The Virgin is also portrayed in the tradi­tional posture of prayer (Orans), sending the supplications of the church to heaven, or enthroned with Jesus in her lap and accompanied by saints, apostles, emperors, or benefactors of the particular temple in which the icon resides. Of Russian origin is the popular representation of the Virgin as the Joy of All That Sorrow.

The wealth of Marian iconic types corre­sponds to the substantial liturgical hymno- graphy dedicated to the Virgin. Each Orthodox service proclaims that “it is meet and right” to praise the Virgin as “more honorable than the cherubim and more glo­rious beyond compare than the seraphim” because of her contribution to the history of salvation. Early examples of liturgical poetry are found in the hymns ofEphrem the Syrian (4th century) and the kontakia of Romanos the Melodist (6th century). These works rely on a deeply evocative language which is redolent with scriptural allusions and highlights Mary’s distinctive status in rela­tion to “all created women”: she is the most joyous of all, for she has conceived God in flesh, and most “magnified,” for she has given birth to him (McVey 1989: 77). In an array of breathtaking images, Ephrem delights in outlining the paradox of how Mary suckled the Word while he, the incar­nate God, nourished the world with the restoring power of his life. Similarly, in his kontakia on the nativity and death of Christ, Romanos turns to Mary as a narrator and imagines her son’s Passion through her eyes. The most impressive assembly of Marian praises is found in the Akathist, a (processional) hymn written after the Council of Ephesus and sung today on Fridays during Great Lent. The Akathist praises Mary redeemer of the ancient curse of Eve, as well as the “womb of the divine Incarnation.” Particularly notewor­thy is the insistence on presenting the Virgin as a “container of the uncontainable God.” Mary is emphatically depicted as the God’s indwelling and the new locus of salvation: she is an “ark gilded by the Spirit,” an “immovable tower” of the Church, an “impregnable wall,” a pillar, a tabernacle, a bridal chamber, a bridge, and a ladder. As the woman who unites God and humanity, the Akathist proclaims, the Virgin is the one who will always protect Christians, assure victory, and heal souls and bodies.

On the whole, the significance of the Virgin Mary in Eastern Christian culture and theology is clearly central. In consenting to do the will of God, Mary becomes the mother of the incarnate Word and makes salvation come true. She brings the human race back to the garden of life from which Adam and Eve were exiled and shines as the embodiment of eschatological hope. The veneration accorded to her is also an acknowledgment of the salvific power of Christ of which she is the first recipient. The church accordingly teaches that while the saints rightly receive honor (douleia), she alone of all creatures is appointed by God to receive “high honor” (hyperdouleia). As a popular hymn attributed to John Damascus aptly puts it, this is why “in you all creation rejoices, o full of grace.”

SEE ALSO: Council of Chalcedon (451); Council of Ephesus (431); Eleousa (Umilenie); Iconography, Styles of; Iconostasis; Icons; Panagia; Platytera; Protecting Veil; St. Cyril of Alexandria (ca. 378–444); St. Ephrem the Syrian (ca. 306–373/379); St. Romanos the Melodist (6th c.)

REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS

Constas, N. (2003) Proclus of Constantinople and the Cult of the Virgin in Late Antiquity. Leiden: E. J. Brill.

Limberis, V. (1994) Divine Heiress: The Virgin Mary and the Creation of Christian Constantinople. New York: Routledge.

McGuckin, J. A. (1994) St. Cyril of Alexandria: The Christological Controversy, Its History, Theology, and Texts. Leiden: E. J. Brill.

McGuckin, J. A. (2008) The Orthodox Church: An Introduction to Its History, Doctrine, and Spiritual Culture. Oxford: Blackwell.

McVey, K. (ed. and trans.) (1989) Ephrem the Syrian: Hymns. New York: Paulist Press.

Tradigo, A. (2006) Icons and Saints of the Eastern Orthodox Church. Milan: Mondadori Electa.