Iconography, Styles of

PHILIP ZYMARIS

Christian art, while initially linked to the artistic style of Antiquity, baptized the existing forms with a new religious content. The methods worked out to accomplish this led to the evolution of different styles of iconography. These styles evolved over three major productive periods of Byzantine history. These three periods may be defined as the Early Byzantine (4th-8th centuries), the Middle Byzantine (867–1204), and the Late Byzantine (1204–1453). These periods of Byzantine art also laid the foundation for all the various schools of Orthodox iconog­raphy that continued to develop after the fall of the Byzantine Empire. EARLY BYZANTINE PERIOD

The acceptance of Christianity as the offi­cial faith of the Byzantine Empire freed Christian art from its previous attachment to symbolic representations common in the catacombs and sarcophagi of Late Antiq­uity. The grand building programs of Con­stantine (4th century) and later of Justinian (6th century) fostered the development of an explicitly Christian iconographical style. Art of this early period represented two main tendencies: a Hellenistic and an oriental style. The former, based on Hellenistic naturalism, was dominant in the centers of Greek culture such as Constantinople. In this style classical forms were imbued with a Christian spirituality as can be seen in the renowned Pantocrator icon (6th century) at St. Catherine’s Monastery, Sinai. Atypical exam­ple ofthe oriental or ascetic style, originating in the eastern reaches of the empire and Egypt, can be seen in the icon of Christ and St. Menas (in the Louvre collection). Typical of this style are bright colors, strongly marked outlines, and isocephaly of rigid, frontal, and symmetrical figures – features that are com­mon to the art of Syria and Egypt.

MIDDLE BYZANTINE PERIOD

The defeat of iconoclasm and the ascendancy of the Macedonian dynasty in the second half of the 9th century was a turning point for Byzantine art. During this period a renewed interest in classical models is evident. Yet, at the same time, the desire to point to the spiritual dimension beyond, and the transformed life of the kingdom, leads to a departure from classical three-dimensional depictions and an emphasized tendency towards reverse perspective that becomes a hallmark of Byzantine iconography. This is evident in even the earliest mosaics of Hagia Sophia that are typical of this early Macedonian Renaissance style.

Plate 32 Nun painting an icon. RIA Novosti/Topfoto.

It continues in the second phase of the Macedonian period (first half of the 11th century) where classical and Justinianic models were employed with renewed interest. The exqui­site mosaics of the Monastery of Daphne (near Athens, ca. 1080) and Hosios Loukas (Phokida, ca. 1030) are products of this period. This style is marked by seemingly immobile, austere, static figures with heavy, powerful proportions, symmetrical features, and proportionately large eyes. The Comnenan dynasty (second half of the 11th-12th centuries) brought with it differ­ent emphases in iconography. The ascetic forms of the preceding period tended to be abandoned in favor of more classical models characterized by a subtle spirituality, elegance, peace, and harmony (Zachaeus 2007: 53). This period also saw the genesis of the Menologion type of icon, that is, a calendrical icon of many figures, depicting the feasts and saints celebrated on a given month. The end of this period (early 12th century) saw once again a revisiting of the ascetical ideals of the early 11th century coupled with a return to classical balance conveying subtle spirituality. The most rep­resentative icon of this era is the so-called Vladimirskaya Icon (Tretyakov, Moscow). The second half the 12th century then developed three main styles: a classical style evident in icons such as the St. Demetrios mosaic (Xenophon Monastery, Athos); a dynamic style marked by efforts to express inner fervor as well as external physical expression, as seen in the Descent into Hell (St. Catherine’s, Mt. Sinai); and a so-called “post-Comnenan mannerism” seen in the restless

contours, aristocratic features, and elegant gestures in the annun­ciation (St. Catherine’s, Mt. Sinai).

LATE BYZANTINE PERIOD

In 1261 Michael VIII Palaeologos regained control of Constantinople from the Crusaders who had taken the city in 1204. This marked the beginning of a final golden age in imperial Byzantine art despite the rapid dwindling of the empire. The early part of this era represented a new monumentalism featuring larger, simpler images expressing a radiant inner beauty reminiscent once again of the first half of the 11th century. The Hagiographical icon (the depiction of a saint framed by smaller scenes from his life as recorded in the Synaxarion) also appeared during this period. The dawn of the 14th century marked the beginning of the Palaeologue Renaissance. Significant for this period are the frescoes at the Monastery of Christ at Chora (Kariye Djami) and the works of the Athonite artist Manouel Panselinos. Typical of this style are supple movement of figure and classical beauty, noble “Greek faces” with high bulging foreheads, deep-set eyes and a three-quarter turn of the head. The first half of the 15th century marked the final chapter in imperial Byzantine art. Despite the constant shrinking of the empire, artistic life was not extinguished during this period. Local schools of iconog­raphy such as the Serbian and Bulgarian (Rice 1963: 187f.) continued to develop. With the fall of Constantinople in 1453 many artists fled the

Plate 33 Part of the newly restored gallery of priceless icons preserved at St. Catherine’s Mon­astery, Mount Sinai, Egypt. Photo by John McGuckin.

former territories of the empire and some migrated to Crete where the significant Cretan school of ico­nography developed (Zachaeus 2007: 95f.). The continuation of the Byzantine art tradition after the fall of the empire is evi­dent especially in the great Russian schools of iconography (Moscow, Tver, Rostov, and Novgorod) (Zachaeus 2007: 119ff.) and in great artists such as St. Andrei Rublev.

SEE ALSO: Architecture, Orthodox Church; Council of Nicea II (787); Icons; St. Andrei Rublev (ca. 1360–1430)

REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS

Gervase, M. (1963) Byzantine Aesthetics. New York: Harper and Row.

Kalokyris, C. (1971) The Essence of Orthodox Iconography, trans. P. Chamberas. Brookline, MA: Holy Cross School of Theology.

Rice, D. (1963) Art of the Byzantine Era. New York: Oxford University Press.

Schug-Wille, C. E. (1969) Art of the Byzantine World, trans. M. Hatt. New York: Harry N. Abrams.

Zachaeus (Wood), Archimandrite (ed.) (2007) A History of Icon Painting, trans. K. Cooke. Moscow: Grand-Holding Publishers.