Syntax

301. Syntax (σύνταξις arrangement) treats of the relations of words to one another.

302. Attributive and Predicate. – Anttributive word, it is taken for granted, modifies another word ; a predicate word is stated to modify another word. Thus, in ὁ ἀγαθὸς ἀνήρ the good man, ἀγαθός is an Attributive adjective; in ὁ ἀνὴρ ἀγαθός ἐστιν the man is good, ἀγαθός is a Predicate adjective.

In Greek, attributive and predicate words are usually distinguished by their position with reference to the article (see §§ 451 and 453).

1. Anttributive may be an adjective, a limiting genitive (§§ 348–355), an adverb with adjective force (§ 429, 1), or a prepositional phrase.

303. A sentence expresses a thought, and contains a Subject and a Predicate.

304. The Subject. – The subject must be a substantive, or some word or words having the value of a substantive: thus, ὁ παῖς γράφει the child is writing, ἐγὼ γράφω I am writing, οἱ τότε ἀνδρεῖοι ἦσαν the men of that time were brave, ἔφυγον… περὶ ὀκτακοσίους about eight hundred fled Xn. Hell. 6, 5, 10.

305. Subject not Expressed. – The subject is not usually expressed when it is clearly indicated by the verb ending or by the context: thus, ἀκούω I hear, ἀκούσατε hear ye, ἐσάλ-πιγξε he (i.e. the trumpeter) sounded the trumpet Xn. A. 1, 2,17. ὔει it (i.e. Ζεύς or ὁ θεός) rains, φᾱσί they (i.e. people) say, τὸν λαμπτῆρα ἐγγὺς προσενεγκάτω let him (i.e. the servant) bring the light close Xn. Symp. 5, 2.

Note. – The origin of the so-called impersonal use of the verb (which is comparatively rare in Greek) is probably to be explained in this way (§ 303): thus, δεῖ μάχης (the condition of affairs) needs a battle, παρεσκεύασταί μοι (things) have been made ready by me.

306. The Predicate. – The predicate is a verb or some word or words equivalent to a verb: thus, Δᾱρεῖος ἠσθένει Darius was ill, Κῦρος βασιλεὺς ἦν Cyrus was king, Κῦρος ἀνδρεῖος ἦν Cyrus was brave.

307. Copula. – When a verb like εἰμί am, γύγνομαι become, φαίνομαι appear, etc., is used merely to connect a predicate noun with the subject, it is called a Copula (cf. ἦν in the last two examples above).

308. Omission of the Verb. – The verb is sometimes omitted when it can be easily understood; especially the copula of the third person ἐστί is or εἰσί are: as ἐχθρῶν ἄδωρα δῶρα foes’ gifts no gifts S. Aj. 665. ὤρᾱ λέγειν (it's) time to speak, τῷ vόμῳ πειστέον obedience (is) to be rendered to the law. Τί ἄλλο οὗτοι ἢ ἐπεβούλευσαν; what else (did) these men than plot against us? Th. 3, 39.

Note. – Omission of the copula of the first or second person is rarely found: ἐγὼ… ἕτοιμος I (am) ready Dem. 4,29. σὺ αἴτιος you (are) to blame Xn. Symp. 6, 7.

THE SIMPLE SENTENCE

309. A simple sentence contains but one subject and one predicate, as Δᾱρεῖος ἠσθένει Darius was ill.

310. Enlargement of the Simple Sentence. – The subject of a sentence may be enlarged by an attributive (§ 302, 1) or appositive (§ 317) τὸ Μένωνος στράτευμα ἀφῑ́κετο Menon’s army arrived, Δάρεῖος ὁ βασιλεὺς ἠσθένει Darius the king was ill.

311. The predicate of a sentence may be enlarged by an object (direct or indirect, §§ 329 and 375) or cognate accusative (§ 381), or by adverbial words or phrases: thus, τῇ στρατιᾷ ἀπέδωκε Κῦρος μισθόν Cyrus paid the army wages, ἐνῑ́κησε τὴν μάχην he won the battle, εὖ λέγεις περὶ τούτων you speak well about this matter.

THE COMPOUND SENTENCE

312. A compound sentence consists of two or more codrdinate simple sentences: thus, τόνδε πέμψομεν… σὺ δὲ θανῇ him wéll send, and you shall die Ε. Ι.Τ. 614.

1. The subject or predicate of a compound sentence is not needlessly repeated: thus, ὁ δὲ πείθεται καὶ συλλαµβάνει Κῦρον he was persuaded (§ 525), and (he) arrested Cyrus Xn. A. 1, 1, 3. εἶχε τὸ μὲν δεξιὸν Μένων καὶ οἱ σὺν αὐτῷ Menon occupied the right wing, and those with him (occupied it) Xn. A. 1, 2,15. σύ τε γὰρ Ἕλλην εἶ καὶ ἡμεῖς for you are a Greek, and (so are) we Xn. A. 2, 1, 10.

Note. – Here belongs the phrase καὶ οὗτος and he, and this, commonly found in the neuter plural καὶ ταῦτα and that too: thus, Μένωνα δὲ οὐκ ἐζήτει, καὶ ταῦτα παρ’ Ἀριαίου ὢν τοῦ Μένωνος ξένου he did not ask for Menon, and that too (he didn’t do) although ke was from Ariaeus, Menon's guest-friend Xn. Α. 2, 4, 15.

THE COMPLEX SENTENCE

313. A complex sentence consists of a main and a subordinate sentence: thus, καὶ βασιλεὺς μὲν δὴ, ἐπεὶἤκουσε Τισσαφέρνους τὸν Κῡ́ρου στόλον, ἀντιπαρεσκευάζετο and the King, of course, when he had heard from Tissaphernes of Cyrus's move, made counter-preparations Xn. A. 1, 2, 5. εἰ μὲν δὴ δίκαια ποιῄσω οὐκ οἶδα whether I shall do right I know not Xn. A. 1, 3, 5. ἐπορευόμην ἵνα… ὠφελοίην αὐτόν I marched to help him Xn. A. 1,3, 4.

Note. – A complex sentence may include more than one subordinate sentence, and a subordinate sentence may in turn have other subordinate sentences dependent on it: thus, ὁ & ὡς ἀπῆλθε…, βου-λεύεται ὅπως μήποτε ἔτι ἔσται ἐπὶ τῷ ἀδελφῷ, ἀλλὰ, ἣν δύνηται, βασι-λεῦσει ἀντ’ ἐκείνου when he came back…, he planned to be no longer in the power of his brother, but, if possible, to be king in his stead. Subordinated to the main sentence, βουλεύεται, are the sentences ὡς ἀπῆλθε, ὅπως… ἔσται, and… βασιλεύσει while… βασιλείσει has dependent on it another subordinate sentence, ἣν δύνηται Xn. A. 1, 1, 4.

314. General Principles of Agreement. – The inflected parts of speech, in general, indicate their relations with other words by agreeing, so far as possible, in gender, number, case, and person, with the words they modify. So a word in apposition with another word stands in the same case (§ 817), an adjective agrees with its substantive in gender, number, and case (§ 420), a pronoun takes the number and gender (and sometimes the person) of its antecedent (§ 462), and a finite verb agrees with its subject in number and person (§ 495).

Note. – Observe that as verbs have no distinction of gender, so substantives (and some pronouns, § 462) have no distinction of person, and may be used with any person (although most frequently with the third), as: Θεμιστοκλῆς ἥκω παρὰ σέ (1), Themistocles, have come to you Th. 1, 137. εἰ βούλεσθέ µοι οἴ τε στρατηγοὶ καὶ οἱ λοχαγοὶ ἐλθεῖν… if (you) generals and captains are willing to come and see me Xn. Α.2, 5,25. ὄς γε κελεύεις (you) who bid Xn. Mem. 2, 3, 15.

315. Construction according to Sense.– A word not infrequently violates the formal rules of grammar by agreeing with the real gender or number of the word it modifies.

So a collective substantive often has a verb or participle in the plural (§§ 321, 500); neuter words or circumlocutions (like βίη Ἡρακληείη mighty Heracles, lit. the might of Heracles) denoting persons often have participles or relative pronouns agreeing with their real gender (§§ 422, 464).

316. Attraction. – Sometimes a word, owing to the influence of other neighboring or preceding words, takes different number, gender, case, or mode, from that expected, or even demanded, by the construction of the clause in which it stands; this is called Attraction.

So an adjective standing with an infinitive may be attracted into the accusative, although the word it really modifies is in the genitive or dative (§ 631, 1); a pronoun may be attracted to the case of its antecedent (§ 484) or to the gender of its predicate substantive (§ 465); a verb may be attracted to the number of its predicate substantive (§ 501) or to the mode or tense of another verb on which it depends (§ 590, notes 1 and 4).

AGREEMENT OF SUBSTANTIVES

APPOSITION

317⁹¹. A substantive used to describe another substantive word, if it denotes the same thing, agrees with it in case (Apposition) ; if possible, it agrees also in number and gender, but this cannot always be: thus, Κῦρος ὁ βασιλεύς Cyrus, the king, Κῦρος καὶ Κροῖσος οἱ βασιλεῖς Cyrus and Croesus, the kings (cf. § 421), ὁ Εὐφρᾱ́της ποταμός the river Euphrates, but Πέλται πόλις οἰκουμένη Peltae an inhabited city.

318. Apposition to a Sentence. – A substantive (in the nominative or accusative case) may stand in apposition to the thought expressed by a sentence. καὶ, τὸ μέγιστον, ἐφοβεῖτο ὅτι ὀφθήσεσθαι ἔμελλε and – most important of all – he was afraid because he was likely to be seen Xn. Cy. 3, 1, 1. εὐδαιμονοίης, μισθὸν ἠδίστων λόγων happiness be yours – reward for sweetest words E. El. 231.

Note.– A word in apposition with a sentence may acquire an adverbial force: thus, δεύτερον αὖ Σολύμοισι μαχέσσατο and secondly (lit. the second thing) he battled with the Solymi Z 184. (For χάριν for the sake of see § 336).

319. Partitive Apposition. – A word in apposition may describe only in part the word to which it refers: thus, οἰκίαι αί μὲν πολλαὶ ἐπεπτώκεσαν, ὀλίγαι δὲ περιῆσαν the houses mostly had fallen, but a few were still left Th. 1, 89. οὗτοι... ἄλλος ἄλλα λέγει these say one one thing, another another Xn. A. 2, 1, 15.

PREDICATE SUBSTANTIVE

320. A substantive used asa predicate (cf. §§ 326, 341) agrees in case (often also in number and gender, cf. § 317) with the word it describes: thus, ἂν έρες ἔστε, φίλοι be men, my friends O 734. Δᾱρεῖος βασιλεὺς ἣν Darius was king. ἡ πόλις… φρούριον κατέστη the city turned itself into a fortress Th. 7, 28. αὐτὸν σατράπην ἐποίησε he made him satrap Xn. A. 1, 1, 2. τούτοις χρῶνται δορυφόροις these they use as body-guards Xn. Hier. 5, 3.

Note.– Observe the difference between the construction of the predicate substantive and that of the direct object (§ 329). Words meaning be, become, appear, choose, regard, name, and the like, can have a predicate substantive.

PECULIARITIES IN THE MEANING OF SUBSTANTIVES

321. Collectives. – A collective substantive, while singular in form, may really have a plural meaning (cf. § 815): so (ἡ) ἵππος cavalry, δῆμος people, πλῆθος multitude, etc. Τροίᾱν ἑλόντες ᾿Αργείων στόλος the Argives, army (which had) taken Troy Aesch. Ag. 577.

322. Abstract for Concrete. – Anbstract substantive is often used with concrete meaning (Antonomasia): thus, μῖσος hateful thing (lit. hate), ὄλεθρος baneful person (lit. destruction), κήδευµα relative (lit. relationship) ; so, by a similar process, τὰ ὅπλα (lit. arms) = camp, ἰχθύες (lit. fish) = fish market, etc.

323. In earlier times Greek (or, at any rate, its parent language) possessed three other cases besides those in regu- lar classical use. These were: (1) Ablative (separation), (2) Instrumental (including accompaniment), and (9) Loca- tive (place where). The ablative has become one with the genitive, and the instrumental has been absorbed by the dative. Of the locative some traces still remain (see § 76, note), but most of its forms and functions have been absorbed by the dative.

324. The Greeks had a keen sense of the finer shades of meaning conveyed by the different cases, and did not hesitate to use different constructions with the same word: thus, ἀκούεν λόγου to hear a speech (§ 356), ἀκούειν λόγον to hear (the whole of) a speech (§ 856 note 1), ἀκούειν λόγον to hearken (i.e. be obedient) to a speech (§ 376).

1. Often a combination of words may demand the use of a certain case which no one of them alone could command: as ἐμαυτῇ διὰ λόγων ἀφϊκόμην (= ἐμαυτῇ δι-ελέχθην) I have held converse with myself (lit. come through words with myself) Ε. Med. 872.

2. So verbs compounded with a preposition are thereby (either with the help of the preposition alone, or from the general meaning of the compound) enabled to take a case which the simple verb could not command. (See §§ 345, 370, and 394.)

3. For practical purposes it becomes necessary to classify these various usages, and in the following pages the v arious uses of the cases are given in detail, but in the use of the cases, as elsewhere, analogy is at work, and it must be remembered that not every use of a case can be put into the grammatical pigeon holes here provided. (As a rule, only the general principles are here stated, and the exact usage with any particular word is always to be learned from the lexicons.)

THE NOMINATIVE

325. The subject of a finite verb is in the nominative case: thus, ἠσθένει Δᾱρεῖος Darius was ill, ὅστις ἀφικνοῖτο whosoever came, μηδεὶς νοµισάτω let nobody think.

326. A noun in the predicate (§ 320) agreeing with the subject of a finite verb is also in the nominative case: thus, Κῦρος βασιλεὺς ἦν Cyrus was king.

Note. – The nominative is not infrequently used in address and exclamations where we might expect the vocative: thus, Ζεῦ πάτερ Ἠέλιός θ’, ὃς πάντ’ ἐφορᾷς Father Zeus and the Sun who lookest on all things Γ 277, Κλέαρχε καὶ Πρόξενε καὶ οἱ ἄλλοι οἱ παρόντες Ἕλληνες Clearchus, Prozenus, and you other Greeks here present Xn. A. 1,5, 10, Οὗτος, τί πάσχεις Here you, what's the matter? Ar. V. 1, Σχέτλιος hard of heart! E 403.

THE VOCATIVE

327. The person (or thing) addressed stands in the Vocative case, often preceded by ὦ: thus, ἄνθρωπε, τί ποιεῖς man, what are you doing? Xn. Cy. 2, 2, T. ὦ ἄνδρες Αθηναῖοι men of Athens. (Cf. § 326, note.)

328. The function of the Accusative is to modify closely and directly the meaning of the verb.

DIRECT OBJECT

329. The direct object of a transitive verb stands in the accusative case: thus, τὸν ἄνδρα ὁρῶ I see the man Xn. A. 1, 8, 26.

1. Many verbs which are transitive in Greek have no transitive equivalent in English. The following are noteworthy: ὀμνύναι τοὺς θεούς to swear by the gods, λανθάνειν τινά to escape the notice of anybody, αἰδεῖσθαι or αἰσχῡ́νεσθαί τινα to feel ashamed before anybody.

2. On the other hand, many Greek intransitive verbs which are followed by a genitive or dative can be rendered vinto English by transitive verbs. See §§ 356 and 376.

330. Circumlocutions equivalent to a transitive verb may, of course, take an object in the accusative (cf. §324, 1): thus, ἐπιστήμονες ἦσαν τὰ προσήκοντα they understood their duties Xn. Cy. 3, 3, 9. συνθήκᾶς ἔξαρνος γίγνεται he denies the agreement Dem. 23,171. ἔστι... τὰ μετέωρα φροντιστής he is a student of things above Pl. Ap. 18 b. So the verbs λέγω say and ποιῶ (-έω) do, with the help of an adverb or cognate accusative (§ 331), are enabled to take a direct object of the person: as εὖ or κακῶς λέγειν τινα to speak good or ill of anybody (cf. § 340).

THE COGNATE ACCUSATIVE

331. In Greek, almost any verb, intransitive or transitive, may be followed by an accusative of kindred meaning with the verb, to define it more closely: thus, δρόµον δραμεῖν to run a race, ἀρίστην βουλὴν βουλεύειν to plan the best plan, Ι T4, ηὐτύχησαν τοῦτο τὸ εὐτύχημα they had this good luck Xn. A. 6, 3, 6, συνέφυγε τὴν φυγὴν ταύτην he had his share in this banishment Pl. Ap. 21 a.

332. Circumlocutions equivalent to a verb may, of course, take a cognate accusative (cf. § 330): thus, σοφὸς ὤν τὴν ἐκείνων σοφίᾱν being wise in their wisdom Pl. Ap. 22 e.

333. The Greeks were very fond of the construction of the cognate accusative, and used it with astonishing freedom. Often the kindred meaning of the accusative is only implied in the verb. The following examples will serve better than explanation to make the matter clear: ζῶ βίον µοχθηρόν I live a grievous life S. El. 599. ἀπόλωλε κακὸν μόρον he has perished (by) an evil fate, a 166. ἠγωνίζοντο… στάδιον they competed in foot-racing Xn. A. 4, 8, 27. τὰ Λύκαια ἔθῡσε he celebrated by sacrifice the Lycaean (festival) Xn. Α. 1, 2, 10. So ἕλκος οὐτάσαι to make a wound, ὁδὸν πορεύεσθαι to make a journey, πλεῖν θάλατταν to sail the sea, ἐξελαύνει… σταθμοὺς τρεῖς he marches three days’ journey, πῦρ πνεῖν to breathe (forth) fire, πῦρ… δεδορκώς looking fire τ 446. ἡ βουλὴ… ἔβλεψε νᾶπυ the Senate looked mustard Ar. Eq. 631. δεινός εἰμι ταύτην τὴν τέχνην I am clever at this business (cf. § 330) Xn. Cy. 8, 4, 18.

334. A neuter adjective or pronoun is often used as a cognate accusative, since the substantive with which it would agree is already implied in the verb: thus, οὐδὲν ψεύδεται hés telling no lie (i.e. οὐδὲν ψεῦδος ψεύδεται) Ar. Ach. 561. τοῦτο ἠρώτᾱ he asked this question (i.e. τοῦτο τὸ ἐρώτημα), μεγάλα ὠφελεῖν to help greatly, τί χρήσεται αὐτῷ what use will he make of him Ar. Ach. 935. τί κατάκειµαι; why am I lying down? Xn. A. 3,1, 13.

335⁹². Accusative of the Part Affected. – Closely allied with the cognate accusative is the accusative of the Part Affected, found mostly with passive and intransitive verbs (see § 335 a): thus, βόθληαι κενεῶνα you are hit in the belly E 284. τᾱ́ς φρένας ὑγιαίνειν to be sound in mind Hdt. 3, 33. ἀλγεῖν τοὺς πόδας to have gout Xn. Mem. 1, 6, 6. τί τὸ δέρμ᾽ ἔπαθες what's the matter with your hide? (lit. what have you experienced in your skin?) Ar. Pax 746.

336. ADVERBIAL USES OF THE ACCUSATIVE.

– From the free use in Greek of the cognate accusative (§ 383), there have arisen several adverbial uses of the accusative: thus, τὴν ταχίστην (50. ὁδόν) the shortest way (originally with a. verb of motion), τοῦτον τὸν τρόπον in this manner, χάριν Τον the sake of (originally an accusative in apposition with a sentence, § 818; o.g. ἐμὴν χάριν for my sake), δίκην in the fashion of, like (e.g. πώλου δίκην like a colt), οὗ . +. ἀρχήν not at all (i.e. not (to make) even the begin- ning), μέγα (μεγάλα) greatly, τὸ πολύ (τὰ πολλά) for the most part, πρῶτον at first, πρότερον formerly, τὸ Ἄοιπόν for the future, τέλος finally, and a good many others whose meanings will readily suggest themselves. Here belong also the comparative and superlative of adverbs in –ως (§ 188).

337. Accusative of Specification. – The accusative case of certain much used words like ὄνομα name, ὔψος height, εὖρος width, μέγεθος size (perhaps originally cognate), very early came to be felt as adverbial, and soon other accusatives came to be used in the same way: thus, ποταμὸς Κύδνος ὄνομα, εὖρος δύο πλέθρων a river, Cydnus by name, two plethra in width Xn. A. 1, 2, 23. πόδας ὠκὺς ᾽Αχιλλεύς Achilles swift of foot, Hm. τυφλὸς τά ὦτα τόν τε νοῦν τά τ’ ὄμματ’ εἶ blind in ears, and mind, and eyes, art thou, S. Ο.Τ. 371.

338. Accusative of Extent. – The accusative (modifying a verb) is used to denote the extent of time or space: thus, ἔμεινεν ἡμέρᾱς πέντε he remained five days Xn. A. 1, 2,11. ἀπέχει ἡ Πλάταια τῶν Θηβῶν σταδίους ἑβδομήκοντα Plataea is seventy stades from Thebes Th. 2, 5.

Note. – Many accusatives denoting extent can readily be seen to be cognate: thus, ἐξελαύνει σταθμοὺς τρεῖς he marches (a march of) three days’ journey Xn. A. 1, 2,5. ἑβίω ἔτη ἓξ καὶ ἐνενήκοντα he lived (a life of) ninety-six years, Isaeus 6, 18. From such verbs as these the usage came to be extended to other verbs.

339⁹³. Accusative of Limit of Motion. – The limit of motion in Greek is expressed by the accusative (in prose regularly with the help of a preposition): thus, ἐξελαύνει… εἰς Κολοσσᾱ́ς he marched to Colossae Xn. A. 1, 2,6.

TWO ACCUSATIVES WITH ONE VERB

340. Since the cognate accusative may be used with transitive verbs (§ 831), it follows that some verbs may take two accusatives, one of the object and the other cognate: thus, τοσοῦτον ἔχθος ἐχθαίρω σε with such hatred do I hate thee S. El. 1034. Μέλητός µε ἐγράψατο τὴν γραφὴν ταύτην Meletus brought this indictment against me PΙ. Ap. 19 b. Κῦρος τὸ στράτευμα κατένειµε δώδεκα μέρη Cyrus divided his army into twelve divisions Xn. Cy. T, 5, 13. ταῦτα τοῦτον ἐποίησα this I did to him Hdt. 1, 115. τοὺς Κορινθίους πολλά τε καὶ κακὰ ἔλεγε he said many bad things of the Corinthians Hdt. 8, 61. Κῦρον αἰτεῖν πλοῖα to demand vessels of Cyrus Xn. A. 1, 3, 14. πολλὰ διδάσκει μ᾿ ὁ πολὺς βίοτος long life teaches me many lessons Ε. Hipp. 252. ἀναμνήσω ὑμᾶς καὶ τοὺς… κινδύνους I will remind you also of the dangers Xn. A. 3, 2, 11. ἀφαιρεῖσθαι τοὺς… Ἕλληνας τὴν γῆν to deprive the Greeks of their land Xn. A. 1, 3, 4. τὴν μὲν θυγατέρα ἔκρυπτε τὸν θάνατον τοῦ ἀνδρός from his daughter he concealed her husband's death Lys. 32, 7.

Among these verbs are those meaning to ask, teach, clothe, remind, conceal, deprive, say (anything) of or do (anything) to (a person), and many others.

1. When these verbs are used in the passive, the cognate accusative is retained in the same case (§ 512): thus, τύπτεσθαι… πεντήκοντα πληγᾱ́ς to be struck fifty blows Aeschin. 1, 139. μουσικὴν… παιδευθείς instructed in music Pl. Menex. 236 a. τοῦτο οὐκ ἐψεύσθησαν in this they were not deceived Xn. A. 2, 2, 13.

341. Predicate Accusative. – Verbs meaning to make, name, appoint, regard, and the like, may have a predicate accusative agreeing with the object (§ 320): thus, στρατηγὸν αὐτὸν ἀπέδειξε he appointed him general Xn. Α. 1, 1, 2. ἀύπνους ἄμμε τίθησθα you make us wakeful ι 404. νόµιζε τὴν μὲν πατρίδα οἶκον regard your native land as your house Xn. Hier. 11, 14.

1. This construction is exactly parallel with ὁ Κῦρος στρατηηὸς ἀπεδείχθη Cyrus was appointed general, and in the passive construction both accusatives become nominatives (§ 511).

PARTICULAR USES OF THE ACCUSATIVE

342. Subject of the Infinitive. – The subject of the infinitive stands in the accusative case (see § 629).

Note. – Originally the accusative in this construction was probably a direct object, while the infinitive (a verbal substantive, § 628) was used to define the verb still further, but as the infinitive partook more and more of the functions of the verb, the origin of the construction was forgotten, and the accusative came to be used with great freedom as the subject of any infinitive.

343. Accusative Absolute. – The participle of an impersonal verb (§ 305, note), having no grammatical connection with the rest of the sentence, stands in the Accusative Absolute (§ 658).

Note. – No doubt the accusative absolute, like the genitive absolute (§ 369), owes its origin to a loosening of its grammatical connection with the rest of the sentence. So in a sentence like ῥεχθὲν δέ τε νήπιος ἔγνω even a fool can see a thing thut's been done P 32, or δεδογµένον δὲ αὐτοῖς εἰθὺς μὲν ἀδύνατα ἦν ἐπιχειρεῖν it was impossible to take up arms at once – a thing which had been voted by them (cf. § 318) Th. 1, 125, the participle came to be thought of as having little or no connection with the rest of the sentence (“when a thing has been done – even a fool can see it,” and “it having been voted by them,” etc.), and so such participles came to be freely used as an independent construction.

344. Accusative of Swearing. – The accusative is used in oaths, regularly preceded by νή or μά: νή or ναὶ μά is always affirmative; οὐ µά or µά alone is negative: thus, νὴ Δία by Zeus, ναὶ μά Δία yes, by Zeus, οὐ µά Δία or µά Δία no, by Zeus.

345. Accusative with Compound Verbs. – Some verbs by being compounded with a preposition, which can be used with the accusative (§ 346), are, thus, enabled to take an accusative which they could not otherwise command (§ 324, 2): thus, ἐσπλέοντι τὸν Ἰόνιον κόλπον (= πλέοντι ἐς τὸν... κόλπον, § 398, note 1) to one sailing into the Ionian Gulf, Th. 1, 91. τοῦτον διαβᾱ́ς having crossed this [river] Xn. Α.1, 2, 6. ὑπέρβη λᾱ́ινον οὐδόν he stepped over the threshold of stone, θ 80.

346. Prepositions with the Accusative. – The use of the Accusative to express Extent (§ 998) or Limit of Motion (§ 339) is often made more clear and definite by the help of prepositions. The preposition εἰς into (as well as the improper preposition ὡς to), from its meaning, can be used only with the accusative; so also in prose ἀνά up. Other prepositions used sometimes with the accusative are ἀμφί about, διά through, ἐπί towards, κατά down, µετά after, παρά to the side of, περί round about, πρός towards, ὑπέρ above, ὑπό under. For the details of their use see §§ 400–417.

347. The uses of the genitive in Greek can be grouped under two heads: the true genitive and the ablative genitive (§ 361), but in many instances the two have become fused together, and not every use of the genitive can be surely referred to one or the other in fact, many uses of the genitive are very hard to classify: thus, δέπας οἴνου cup of wine may appear to some a partitive genitive (§ 355), to others a descriptive genitive (of material, § 352, and note); ταύτης τῆς γενεᾶς εἰμι l am of this race may appear to some a descriptive genitive (§ 352), to others a genitive of source (§ 365), to others still a partitive genitive (§ 355), and many other examples of a similar sort might be quoted.

A. THE TRUE GENITIVE

POSSESSIVE GENITIVE

348. The genitive limiting a substantive may denote Possession or Belonging: thus, οἰκίᾱ́ πατρός father's house, κῡ́ματα τῆς θαλάττης waves of the sea, Ἑλένη ἡ Διός Helen the (daughter) of Zeus.

1. The possessive genitive can stand equally well in the predicate: thus, αἱ κῶμαι… Παρυσᾱ́τιδος ἦσαν the villages were Parysatis’ Xn. A. 1, 4, 0. νομίζει ὑμᾶς ἑαυτοῦ εἶναι he thinks you are his own Xn. A. 2, 1, 11. τῶν γὰρ μάχῃ νῑκώντων καὶ τὸ ἄρχειν ἐστίν for to rule is also (the right) of those who conquer in battle Xn. A. 2, 1, 4.

Note. – The possessive genitive is often used with the definite article when the substantive with which the article would agree can be easily supplied (see § 421): thus, Πολέμαρχος ὁ Κεφάλου Polemarchus the (son of) Cephalus, τὰ τῆς πόλεως the (affairs) of the State; so also εἰς τοῦ ἀδελφοῦ to my brother's (i.e. to his house).

2. The meaning of the possessive genitive is often made more clear by the addition of adjectives like ἴδιος one’s own, οἰκεῖος belonging to one’s house, ἱερός sacred (to): thus, ἱερὸς ὁ χῶρος τῆς ᾿Aρτέμιδος the place is (a) sacred (place) of Artemis Xn. A. 5, 8, 13.

SUBJECTIVE GENITIVE

349. A genitive limiting a substantive sometimes expresses the relation which would be expressed by the subject of a verb: thus, φόβος τῶν πολεµίων fear of the enemy (i.e. οἱ πολέµιοι φοβοῦνται the enemy are afraid), εὔνοια τῶν πολιτῶν good will of the citizens.

Note. – The line between the subjective and the possessive (8 348) genitive is very hard to draw, for the two imperceptibly shade into each other.

OBJECTIVE GENITIVE

350. The genitive may express the relation which would be expressed by the object (direct or indirect) of a verb: thus, φόβος τῶν πολεµίων fear of the enemy (i.e. φοβεῖral τις τοὺς πολεμίους some one fears the enemy), εὔνοια τῶν πολιτῶν good will toward the citizens (i.c. εὐνοεῖ τις τοῖς π.ολίταυς some one is well disposed toward the citizens), ἐπιθῡμία τῆς σοφίᾶς desire for wisdom, τούτων αἰτίᾷ the cause of this.

351. Objective Genitive with Adjectives. – Adjectives kindred to verbs which take an object may be followed by an objective genitive ἐπιστήμων τῆς τέχνης understanding the art Pl. Go. 448 b. ὀψιμαθὴς τῆς ἀδικίᾱς late in learning injustice Pl. Rep. 409 b. τούτων αἴτιος responsible for this Ar. Eq. 1356.

DESCRIPTIVE GENITIVE

352. The genitive may describe the substantive which it limits: thus, παῖς δέκα ἐτῶν a boy of ten years, χιλίων δραχμῶν δίκη a thousand drachmae suit, ἀργυρίου μνᾶ a silver mina, ἅμαξαι σῑ́τον wagon loads of grain, Τροίης πτολίεθρον city of Troy (poetic; cf. § 317).

Note. – The descriptive genitive is often subdivided into genitive of measure, material, value, etc.

1. The descriptive genitive often stands in the predicate (cf. § 348, 1): thus, ἦν ἐτῶν ὡς τριᾱ́κοντα he was about thirty years old Xn. A. 2, 6, 20. ἡ κρηπίς ἐστι λίθων μεγάλων the foundation is of large stones Hdt. 1, 93.

Note. – Here doubtless belongs the infinitive of purpose with τοῦ used by Thucydides and later writers (5 639): as φρούριον ἐπ» αὐτοῦ ἦν… τοῦ μὴ ἐσπλεῖν Μεγαρεῦσι μηδ» ἐκπλεῖν μηδέν on it there was a fort so that nothing should sail in or out for the Megarians, Th. 2, 93.

353. Genitive of Value. – With words of valuing, buying, selling, and the like, the genitive (perhaps originally a descriptive genitive, § 352) is used to denote the valueor price: thus, μείζονος αὐτὰ τῑμῶνται they value them more highly Xn. Cy. 2, 1, 13. δραχμῆς πρίασθαι to buy for a drachma PL. Ap. 26 e. τῶν πόνων πωλοῦσιν ἡμῖν πάντα τᾱγάθ» οἱ θεοί the gods sell all things to us at the price of toil Xn. Mem. 2, 1, 20 (from Epicharmus). πόσου διδάσκει; πέντε μνῶν what is his price for instruction? Five minae Pl. Ap. 20 b.

Note. – But if the price is regarded as the means of acquiring a thing, it stands in the dative (see § 387).

1. The genitive of value may be made more clear by the help of adjectives like ἄξιος worthy, ἀνάξιος unworthy, ἀντάξιος equivalent, etc.: thus, ἄξιος πολλοῦ worth much, ἀνάξια ἐμοῦ (things) unworthy of me Pl. Ap. 38 e.

PARTITIVE GENITIVE

354. A word denoting anything of which only a part is considered, stands in the genitive case.

355. Partitive Genitive with Substantives. – A substantive (or substantive pronoun) may be described by a genitive denoting the whole of which it is a part: thus, τῶν πελταστῶν ἀνήρ a man of the peltasts Xn. A. 4, 8, 4. ἧλθον ἐξ Ἐφέσου τῆς ᾿Ιωνίᾱς they came from Ephesus (a part) of Ionia Xn. A. 2, 2, 6. οἱ ἁλόντες Ἑλλήνων those of the Greeks who were captured Hdt. 7, 175. πολλοὶ τῶν στρατιωτῶν many of the soldiers, οὐδεὶς τῶν πολεμίων no one of the enemy, εἰς τοσοῦτον τόλµης to such a (point) of boldness Lys. 12, 22.

1. Adjectives or adverbs of the superlative degree are often followed by a partitive genitive (§ 427, 1): thus, βέλτιστος ἀνθρώπων best (man) of men.

Here belong also poetical expressions like δῖα γυναικῶν divine among women δ 305, etc.

Note. – The partitive genitive with substantives has commonly the predicate position (§ 454).

2. The partitive genitive can stand equally well in the predicate: thus, ἦν δὲ καὶ ὁ Σωκράτης τῶν ἀμφὶ Μίλητον στρατενοµένων Socrates also was (one) of those engaged in military operations around Miletus Xn. A. 1, 2, 3. ἐμὲ… θὲς τῶν πεπεισµένων put me down as (one) of the converts PL. Rep. 424 c.

356. Partitive Genitive with Verbs. – Any verb whose action affects the object only in part is regularly followed by the genitive. Many verbs, from their meaning, are almost always so used, others only occasionally. Thus, verbs meaning to share, touch, take hold of, be full of, begin, aim at, hit, miss, taste of, smell of, enjoy, hear, remember and forget, care for and neglect, spare, desire, exercise authority (in some respect) over, and the like, regularly take the genitive: thus, λαβόντας τοῦ βαρβαρικοῦ στρατοῦ taking (part) of the barbarian army Xn. A.1, 5, 7. τῆς γῆς ἔτεμον they ravaged (some) of the country Th. 1, 30. δεῖ ὑμᾶς… τῶν κινδῡ́νων μετέχειν you must share the dangers Xn. Hell. 2, 4, 9. συλλήψομαι δὲ τοῦδέσοι κἀγὼ πόνου but I too will take part with you in this task Ε. Med. 946. λάβε πέτρης, τῆς ἔχετο he seized hold of the rock, and to this he clung ε 428. τὰ ᾿Αναξαγόρου βιβλία γέµει τούτων τῶν λόγων Anazagoras’ books are full of these subjects Pl. Ap. 26 d. τοῦ λόγου δὲ ἤρχετο ὧδε and thus, he began his speech Xn. A. 3, 2, 7. παιδὸς ὀρέξατο he reached for his child Ζ 466. νῑ́κης τετυχήκαµεν we have met with victory Xn. Cy. 4, 1, 2. λωτοῖο φαγών eating of lotus ι 102. ὀλίγοι… σῑ́τον ἐγεύσαντο few tasted of food Xn. A. 3, 1, 3. δαιτὸς ὄνησο enjoy the banquet τ 68. τῆς κραυγῆς ᾔσθοντο they perceived the shouting Xn. Hell. 4, 4, 4. δέδοικα μὴ ἐπιλαθώμεθα τῆς οἴκαδε ὁδοῦ I fear lest we forget the homeward way Xn. A. 3, 2, 25. σέθεν δ᾽ ἐγὼ οὐκ ἀλεγίζω but I care not for you A 180. τούτων τῶν µαθηµάτων πάλαι ἐπιθῡμῶ I have long been desirous of this learning Xn. Mem. 2, 6, 30. ἐκράτουν τῆς θαλάσσης they were masters of the sea Th. 1, 80. Χειρίσοφος ἡγεῖτο τοῦ στρατεύματος Chirisophus led the army Xn. A. 4, 1, 6.

Note 1. – Of course, when these verbs affect the object as a whole, they take the accusative: thus, οὐ µετέλαβε τὸ πέµπτον µέρος τῶν ψήφων he did not get (as his share) the fifth part of the votes PL. Αp. 36 a. θεοῦ ἔκλυεν αὐδήν he heard the voice of the god O 270. πίε οἶνον drink wine I 347. ἔλαβον τῆς ζώνης τὸν Ὀρόντᾱν they seized Orontas by the girdle (i.e. they seized Orontas, but took hold of his girdle) Xn. A. 1, 6, 10. ἣν τὴν γῆν αὐτῶν τέμωμεν if we ravage their land Th. 1, 81.

Note 2. – As partitive is to be explained the genitive with verbs of imploring (poetic): as ἐμὲ λισσέσκετο γούνων she besought me by (taking hold of) my knees I 451.

357. Partitive Genitive with Adjectives. – Adjectives (and sometimes their adverbs) of kindred meaning with verbs which take the partitive genitive (§ 356) may also be construed with the genitive. See also § 851. (Usually such adjectives stand with a copula, thus, forming a circumlocution equivalent toa verb; cf. § 330): thus, μέτοχος σοφίᾱς partaking of wisdom, μεστὸς κακῶν full of evil, λήθης ὢν πλέως being full of forgetfulness Pl. Rep. 486 c. ἐπιστήμης κενὸς void of knowledge (but cf. § 362, 2 and §347), πλούσιος φρονήῄσεως rich in wisdom, ὑπήκοος τῶν γονέων obedient to his parents Pl. Rep. 463 d. κακῶν ἄγευστος without taste of evil S. Ant. 582. ἀμνήμων κακῶν unmindful of evil E. Ἠ. F. 1397 (but cf. § 351).

358⁹⁴. (Partitive) Genitive of Place. – The partitive genitive (in prose regularly with the help of a preposition or adverb, see §§ 308–418) is used to denote the place within some part of which an action takes place: thus, ἰέναι τοῦ πρόσω to go (into any part of the county) ahead Xn. A. 1, 3, 1. So also δεξιᾶς and ἀριστερᾶς (sc. χειρὸς) on the right and on the left (hand): τὸ δὲ ἀριστερῆς χερὸς ἕστηκε and it stands (on a portion of the ground) on the left Hdt. 5, 77. So περὶ τρόπιος about (part of) the keel, διὰ πεδίου through (part of) the plain, πέρᾶν τοῦ ποταμοῦ (in some part of the space) across the river, πλησίον τοῦ δεσµωτηρίου (in some part of the space) near the prison, etc.

Here belong also the adverbs in –ου like ποῦ, οὐδαμοῦ, etc. (§ 137, 1).

359. (Partitive) Genitive of Time. – The genitive is used to denote the time within some part of which an action takes place: thus, βασιλεὺς οὐ μαχεῖται δέκα ἡμερῶν the king will not fight (at any time) within ten days Xn. A. 1, 7, 18: so frequently ἡμέρᾱς by day, νυκτός by night, χειμῶνος in the winter, etc.

360. Partitive Genitive with Adverbs. – Adverbs of place and time (rarely others) may be used with a partitive genitive (sce §§ 358, 359): thus, ποῦ γῆς where on earth (Latin ubinam gentium). οὐδαμῇ Αἰγύπτου nowhere in Egypt, οὐχ ὁρᾶς ἵν κακοῦ you see not in what plight of ill you are S. Aj. 886. πόρρω τοῦ βίου far on in life PL Ap.38 c. ὀψὲ τῆς ἡμέρᾶς late in the day. πῶς ἔχεις δόξης; in what state of opinion are you? PL. Rep. 456 d.

Note. – The partitive genitive with adverbs is by some authors used very freely; as χρημάτων εὖ ἥκοντες being well off in money Hdt. 5, 62. Ἀθηναῖοι ὡς ποδῶν εἶχον τάχιστα ἐβοήθεον the Athenians, with all possible speed of fool, went to assist Hdt. 6, 116.

B. THE ABLATIVE GENITIVE

361. The genitive performs also the duties of the original ablative which it has absorbed (see § 998).

GENITIVE OF SEPARATION

362⁹⁵. The ablative genitive is used with words denoting or implying separation: thus, –

1. With Verbs. – ἀπεῖχον τῆς Ἑλλάδος, they were distant from Greece Xn. A. 3, 1, 2. ἡ νῆσος οὗ πολὺ διέχει τῆς ἠπείρου the island is not far distant from the mainland Th. 3, 51. δυοῖν ἀδελφοῖν ἑστερήθημεν δύο of two brothers were we two bereft S. Ant. 13. τούτους... οὗ παύσω τῆς ἀρχῆς I shall not depose these from office Xn. Cyr 8, 6, 3. οὐδὲν διοίσεις Χαιρεφῶντος you will not differ at all from Chaerephon Av. Nub. 503.

2. With Αadjectives. – φίλων ἀγαθῶν ἔρημοι destitute of good friends Xn. Mem. 4, 4, 24. ὀρφανὸς ἀνδρῶν bereft of men Lys. 2. 60. ἕτερον τὸ ἡδὺ τοῦ ἀγαθοῦ the pleasant is different from the good PL. Go. 500 d.

3. With Adverbs. – χωρὶς τῆς δόξης apart from the reputation Pl. Ap. 35 b. ἄνευ πλοίων without boats Xn. A 4. 2, 2, 3. πόρρω τῆς πόλεως far off from the city Xn. Hell. 4, 5, 14. διαφερόντως τῶν ἄλλων differently from the vest Xn. Hier. 7, 4.

Note. – Verbs of depriving sometimes take a genitive of separation instead of the accusative of § 340: thus, τῶν ἄλλων ἀφαιρούμενοι χρήματα taking away property from the rest Xn. Mem. 1, 5, 3. πόσων ἀπεστέρησθε of how much have you been bereft! Dem. 8, 63.

363. Genitive with Comparatives. – Adjectives and adverbs of the comparative degree may be followed by a genitive (of separation) of the thing compared (see § 426, 2): thus, χρῡσὸς δὲ κρείσσων μῡρίων λόγων gold is more potent than unnumbered words Ε. Med. 965. ὑστέρῳ χρόνῳ τούτων at a time later than these (events) Hdt. 4, 166. [πονηρίᾱ] θᾶττον θανάτου θεῖ baseness runs swifter than death P1. Ap. 39 a.

364. Genitive with Verbs of Inferiority and Superiority. – Verbs denoting Inferiority or Superiority (or Comparison, § 363) may be followed by a genitive of separation: thus, τάχει… περιεγένου αὐτοῦ you surpassed him in quickness Xn. Cy. 3, 1, 19. τούτου… οὐχ ἧττησόµεθα εὖ ποιοῦντες we do not mean to be outdone by him in kindly deeds Xn. A. 2, 3, 23. τἰμαῖς τούτων ἐπλεονεκτεῖτε in honors you had the advantage of these men Xn. A. 3, 1, 37. Ἀβροκόμᾱς δὲ ὑστέρησε τῆς μάχης but Abrocomas was too late for the fight Xn. A. 1, 7, 19. ἡττῶντο τοῦ ὕδατος they were vanquished by the water Xn. Hell. 5, 2, 5.

Note. – Observe that the genitive (of separation) with these verbs differs from the (partitive) genitive of § 356 in that the accusative can never be substituted for it (§ 336, note 1).

GENITIVE OF SOURCE

365. The ablative genitive is sometimes used to denote the source: thus, μάθε δέ µου καὶ τάδε but learn of me this also Xn. Cy. 1, 6, 44. ἐμοῦ ἀκούσεσθε πᾶσαν τὴν ἁλήθειαν from me you shall hear the whole truth Pl. Ap. 17 b. Δᾱρείον καὶ Παρυσᾱ́τιδος γύγνονται παῖδες δύο of Darius and Parysatis were born two children Xn. A. 1, 1, 1.

GENITIVE OF CAUSE

366. The ablative genitive is sometimes used to express cause: thus, χωόμενος γυναικός angry because of a woman A 429. ἐθαύμασα τῆς τολμῆς τῶν λεγόντων… I have wondered at the effrontery of those who say Lys. 12, 41. τούτους… οἰκτέρω τῆς ἄγᾶν χαλεπῆς νόσου I pity them Τον their very serious infirmity Xn. Sym. 4, 37. καί σφεας τῑμωρήσομαι τῆς ἐνθάδε ἀπέξιος I shall punish them for their coming hither Hdt. 3, 145. The genitive with ἕνεκα concerning, on account of, and χάριν for the sake of, is probably a true genitive (§ 347): as ἐλευθερίᾱς ἕνεκα for the sake of freedom Dem. 18, 100.

Note. – Genitive of Exclamation. The genitive of cause is also used alone in exclamations: thus, ἀλλὰ τῆς ἐμῆς κάκης but (to think of) my cowardice! E. Med. 1051. φεῦ τοῦ ἀνδρός alas for the man! Xn. Cy. 3, 1, 39.

367. Genitive of the Charge or Penalty. – The genitive, with words of judicial action, is used to denote the Charge. or Penalty: thus, διώξομαί σε δειλίᾱς Íll prosecute you Τον cowardice Ar. Eq. 368. δώρων ἐκρίθησαν they have been convicted of bribery (lit. gifts) Lys. 27, 3. τῶν… ἀδικημάτων ηὐθύνθη he was acquitted of wrong-doing Th. 1, 95.

So with adjectives of similar meaning: ἔνοχος λιποταξίον liable for desertion Lys. 14, 5. τῆς ἀρχῆς ὑπεύθυνος liable to give account of his office Dem. 18, 117. τῆς προτέρᾱς ὀλιγαρχίᾱς αἰτιώτατος ἐγένετο he was most to blame for the earlier oligarchy Lys. 12, 65 (cf. § 351).

Note. – The origin of the Genitive of the Charge or Penalty cannot be surely explained, but most instances can be referred to the genitive of cause (§ 366): as διώκω τοῦτον κλοπῆς I am prosecuting this man for (i.e. because of) theft. On the other hand a genitive like θανάτου in θανάτου τῑμῶμαι I set the penalty at death (and so by extension, θανάτου κρῑ́νειν to try for a capital crime) is almost certainly in origin a genitive of value (§ 353).

PARTICULAR USES OF THE GENITIVE

368. Two or More Genitives with One Word. – It may happen that more than one genitive limits the same word: thus, τῶν Ἰώνων τὴν ἡγεμονίην τοῦ πρὸς Δᾱρείον πολέμου the leadership of the Tonians in the war against Darius Hdt. 6, 2.

369. The Genitive Absolute. – A substantive and modifying participle having no grammatical connection with the rest of a sentence stand in the Genitive Absolute (see § 657).

Note. – No doubt the Genitive Absolute (like the Accusative Absolute, § 343) arose from the gradual loosening of the grammatical connection of a limiting genitive and participle, until such a genitive came to be felt as an independent construction. Thus, in sentences like οὐδέ τι μῆχος ῥεχθέντος κακοῦ ἔστ» ἄκος εὑρέμεν and no way is there to devise a cure for evil done (objective genitive, § 350) I 350, or ὡς δ’ ὅτε καπνὸς ἰὼν εἷς οὐρανὸν εὑρὺν ἵκηται ἄστεος αἰθομένοιο as when smoke rises and reaches to the broad heavens – (the smoke) of a burning city (descriptive genitive, § 352) Φ 523, the genitives came to be felt as independent constructions, and to mean “evil having been done,” “a city being on fire.”

370. Genitive with Compound Verbs. – Many verbs compounded with: prepositions which can be used with the genitive, are, thus, enabled to take a genitive which, unaided, they could not command (§ 324, 2): thus, ἔκβαιν’ ἀπήνης (= βαῖν» ἐξ ἀπήνης, § 398, note 1) step forth from the chariot Aesch. Ag. 906. προδραμόντες… τῶν ὁπλῖτὢν running in advance of the hoplites (§ 398, note 1) Xn. A. 5, 2, 4. ἠπείρου ἐπιβῆναι to set foot on land = βῆναι ἐπ᾽ ἠπείρου, § 408, 1) ε 399. Especially κατά in the sense of against (cf. § 409, 1 B): τούτου δειλίᾱν καταψηφίζεσθαι (=ψηφίξεσθαι δειλίᾱν κατὰ τούτου) to vote cowardice against this man (i.e. to condemn him for cowardice) Lys. 14, 11. κατεβόων τῶν Ἀθηναίων they eried out against (i.e. decried) the Athenians Th. 1, 67. So κατηγορῶ(-έω) accuse, and similar words (cf. § 409, 1B).

Note. – Observe that the genitive with compound verbs may be either a True Genitive (§ 348 ff.), or an Ablative Genitive (§ 361).

371. Prepositions with the Genitive. – The use of the Partitive Genitive (of Place or Time, §§ 358, 859) and the Genitive of Separation (§ 362) or Source (§ 865) is often made more clear and definite by the help of prepositions (see § 898). The prepositions ἀντέ instead of, ἀπό from, ἐξ out of, πρό before, and almost all “improper” prepositions (§ 418) are used with the genitive only. Other prepositions used sometimes with the genitive are ἀμφί about, διά through, κατά down, µετά with, ὑπέρ above, ἐπί upon, παρά beside, περί around, πρός by, at, ὑπό under. For the details of their use see §§ 400–417.

372. The Genitive of Agent. – The Agent with passive verbs (§ 516) is regularly expressed by the genitive with ὑπό under, by, sometimes with πρός or παρά at the hands of, less often by ἐκ or ἀπό from.

373. The dative in Greek inherits most of the functions of three earlier distinct cases (see § 323): the True Dative (§ 874), the Locative (§ 383), and the Instrumental (§ 386).

A. THE TRUE DATIVE

374. The True Dative (which belongs properly with verbs or expressions equivalent to a verb) in general denotes that to or for which anything is or is done. (Hence words denoting persons are more likely to stand in the dative than those denoting things.) Some words and phrases require a dative to complete their meaning; to others a dative may be added at pleasure.

DATIVE OF THE INDIRECT OBJECT

375. The Indirect Object stands in the dative case: thus, Συέννεσις ἔδωκε Κῡ́ρῳ χρήματα πολλά Syennesis gave (to) Cyrus a great deal of money Xn. A. 1, 2, 27. ἐκείνῳ αὕτη ἡ χώρᾱ… ἐδόθη to him this country had been given Xn. Hell. 3, 1, 6. τῷ Ἀσκληπιῷ ὀφείλομεν ἀλεκτρυόνα we owe a cock to Asclepius Pl. Phaed. 118 a. θεοῖσι δὲ χεῖpas ἀνέσχον and to the gods they lifted up their hands Γ 318.

376. Many verbs, and circumlocutions equivalent to a verb (cf. § 330), normally require a dative (of the indirect object) to complete their meaning: thus, τοῖς νόµοις πείθονται they are obedient to the laws Xn. Mem. 4, 4, 15. ἐναυμάχεον ἀνηκουστήσαντες τοῖσι στρατηγοῖσι they Sought, in disobedience to (the orders of) the generals Hdt. 6, 14. ἐπίστευον αὐτῷ αἱ πόλεις the cities had confidence in him Xn. A.1, 9, 8. τῷ χρηστηρίῳ πίσυνος ἐών being confident in the oracle Hdt. 1, 73. ὠργίζοντο ἰσχυρῶς τῷ Κλεάρχῳ they were mightily angry at Clearchus Xn. A. 1, 5, 11. ἐπολέμει τοῖς Θρᾷξί he waged war with the Thracians Xn. A. 2, 8, 5. βασιλεῖ φίλους εἶναι to be friends to the king Xn. A. 2, 1, 20. οὗ μὴ δυσμεvis ἔσῃ φίλους surely you will not be hostile to your friends Ε. Med. 1151. εἰ τοῖς πλέοσι ἀρέσκοντές ἔσμεν, τοῖσδ’ ἂν μόνοις οὐκ ὀρθῶς ἀπαρέσκοιμεν if we are in favor with (lit. pleasing to) the majority, we could not by any right be in disfavor with these alone Th. 1, 38. τί οὖν πρέπει ἀνδρὶ πένητε; now what is suitable for a poor man? Pl. Ap. 36 d.

In general, verbs (and verbal expressions) meaning please, profit, trust, aid, befit, obey, and their opposites (many of which are rendered in English by transitive verbs), require a dative to complete their meaning; but the exact usage with each word must be learned from the lexicons.

Note. – Only predicate adjectives regularly take a dative of indirect object (since: an attributive adjective commonly has the genitive, § 351); rarely such a dative is arrogated by an attributive adjective (or even by a substantive, § 393): thus, Αἴολος... φιλος ἀθανάτοισι θεοῖσιν Acolus, dear to the immortal gods κ 2.

THE DATIVE OF INTEREST

377. A dative of the Person Interested may be added to almost any sentence.

Note 1.– Observe that the dative often adds the idea of personal interest (Advantage or Disadvantage) to what might otherwise be expressed by a genitive. Thus, compare the following: Δἀρείου καὶ Παρυσᾱ́τιδος γίγνονται παῖδες δύο of Darius and Parysatis two children were born (§ 365) Xn. A. 1, 1, 1. ἦσαν Κροίσῳ δύο παῖδες Croesus was blessed with two children (§ 379) Hdt. 1, 34. Δαναών ἀπὸ λοιγὸν ἀμῦναι to keep destruction away from the Danaans II 75. Δανασῖσι... λοιγὸν ἄμῡνον relieve the Danaans of the pestilence A 456. So δέξατό οἱ σκῆπτρον he received the scepler at his hands B 186.

Note 2. – It is convenient to subdivide the dative of Interest into “Advantage or Disadvantage” (§ 378), “Possession” (§ 378), “Agent” (§ 380), “Reference” (§ 382), and the “Ethical” dative (§ 381), but it must be remembered that no hard and fast lines can be drawn between these various uses (§ 324, 3). Thus, in διαμένει ἔτι καὶ νῦν τοῖς βασιλεῦσι ἡ πολυδωρίᾱ the custom of giving costly gifis lasts even to this day for the kings; the dative of Interest (βασιλεῖσι), may be explained as dative of Advantage, Possession, or Reference.

378. Dative of Advantage or Disadvantage. – The dative of interest may imply Advantage or Disadvantage: thus, πᾶς ἀνὴρ αὑτῷ πονεῖ every man labors for himself S. Aj. 1366. οἴ τὸ πάγχρῡσον δέρος Πελίᾷ μετῆλθον who went to fetch the golden fleece for Pelias Ε. Med. 6. στεφανοῦσθαι πάντας τῷ θεῷ all to be crowned in honor of the god Xn. Hell. 4, 3, 91. Δαναοῖσι ἀεικέα λοιγὸν ἄμῦνον ward off vile pestilence from the Danaans A 456. (So with ἀμῡ́νω alone: τῇ πόλει… ἀμῡ́νειν καὶ θεοῖς to defend the State and gods Ar. Eg. 577). τοὺς Θρᾷκας τοὺς τῷ Δημοσθένει ὑστερήσαντας the Thracians who came too late for (i.e. to the disadvantage of) Demosthenes Th. 7, 29.

379. Dative of Possession. – The dative of interest (or advantage) is used with verbs like εἰμί am, or γίγνομαι become, to denote possession (cf. in Latin est mihi filius): thus, ἦσαν Κροίσῳ δύο παῖδες Croesus had two children Hdt. 1, 34. εἰσίν ἐμοὶ ἐκεῖ ξένοι I (luckily) have friends there Pl. Crit. 45 c. Οὔτις ἐμοί of ὄνομα Noman is my name ι 366.

380. Dative of Agent. – The dative of interest with the perfect or pluperfect passive, or with the verbal in –τέος (§ 666), comes even to denote regularly the Agent: thus, πάνθ᾽ ἡμῖν πεποίηται everything has been done by us Xn. A. 1, 8, 12. τοσαῦτά μοι εἰρήσθω let this much have been said by me Lys. 24, 4. ἡμῖν… πάντα ποιητέα (sc. ἐστί) everything must be done by us Xn. A. 3, 1, 35.

381. The Ethical (or Emotional) Dative. – The dative of a personal pronoun is often used to denote a lively or emotional interest which a person may have in something: thus, καί µοι μὴ θορυβήσετε and do not, I beg you, make any uproar Pl. Ap. 20 e. Ἀρταφέρνης ὑμῖν Ὑστάσπεός ἐστι παῖς now Artaphernes, you must know, is the son of Hystaspes Hdt. 5, 30. καὶ ὁ ἀνήρ σοι ὁ νεᾱνίᾱς ἐκεῖνος προελθὼν τοῦ λοχᾱγοῦ πρότερος ἐπορεύετο and would you believe it, that young fellow stepped out in front, and marched in advance of the captain! Xn. Cy. 2, 2, 7.

382. Dative of Reference. – Datives expressing a remote interest (or merely a point of view) are conveniently classed as datives of Reference: thus, σφῷν μὲν ἐντολὴ Διὸς ἔχει τέλος δή the command of Zeus so far as touches you twain, has its end Aesch. Pr. 12. Σωκράτης ἐδόκει τιμῆς ἄξιος εἶναι τῇ πόλει Socrates seemed to be deserving of honor from (lit. in reference to) the State Xn. Mem. 1, 2, 62. ὅλωλεν ὡς ὅλωλεν τοῖσιν εἰδόσιν hés dead – as dead may be – for those who know E. LT. 575. So in the idiomatic expressions like εἰ καὶ ἐκείνῳ βουλομένῳ ταῦτ» ἐστί if this is agreeable to him also (lit. to him wishing) Xn. Hell. 4, 1, 11. Ἐπίδαμνός ἐστι πόλις ἐν δεξιᾷ ἐσπλέοντι τὸν Ἰόνιον κόλπον Epidamnus is a city on the right as one sails (lit. to, or with reference to, one. sdiling) into the Ionian Gulf Th. 1,24, So ὡς συνελόντε εἰπεῖν to speak briefly (lit. to speak from the point of view of one who has condensed the matter) Xn. A. 8, 1, 38.

Note. – No hard and fast line can be drawn between the dative of Reference and the dative of Advantage or Disadvantage, for a good many datives can be referred to either class.

B. THE LOCATIVE DATIVE

383. As the heir to most of the functions of an earlier locative case (§ 323) the dative is used in expressions of place and time.

384⁹⁶. Dative of Place. – The dative (in prose regularly with the help of a preposition) is used to denote the place where (cf. § 384 a): thus, ἐν τῇ πόλει in the city.

385. Dative of Time. – The dative (often with the help of a preposition) is used to denote time when (cf. § 383): thus, τῇ ὑστεραίᾷ on the following (day), τετάρτῳ ἔτει the fourth year, μιᾷ νυκτί on one night, ἐν τῷ αὐτῷ χειμῶνι the same winter Th. 2, 34.

C. THE INSTRUMENTAL DATIVE

386. The dative performs also the duties (in expressing means, manner, cause, accompaniment) of the earlier instrumental case which it has absorbed (§ 323).

387. Dative of Means. – The dative may denote the Means or Instrument: thus, λίθοις ἔβαλλον they pelted (them) with stones Xn. A. 5, 4, 23. ῞ϊησι τῇ ἀξίνῃ he threw the axe (lit. with the axe) Xn. A.1, 5, 12. γνωσθέντες τῇ σκευῇ τῶν ὅπλων known by the make of their weapons Th. 1, 8.

Note. – The verb χρῶμαι use (i.e. serve onés self with) regularly takes the dative of Means: thus, λόγῳ χρῶνται they use reason Xn. Mem. 3, 3, 11.

388. Dative of Degree of Difference. – The dative of means with comparatives and expressions implying comparison (sometimes also with superlatives) denotes the Degree of Difference: thus, τῇ κεφαλῇ μείζω taller by a (lit. the) head Pl. Phaed. 100 e. οὐ πολλαῖς ἡμέραις ἡμέραις ὔστερον not many days later (lit. later by not many days) Xn. Hell. 1, 1, 1. πόλτ λογίµῳ ἡ Ἑλλὰς γέγονε ἀσθενεστέρη Greece has become weaker by one famous city Hdt. 6, 106. δέκα ἔτεσι πρὸ τῆς ἐν Σαλαμῖνι ναυμαχίᾱς ten years before the sea fight at Salamis Pl. Leg. 698 e. πολλῷ πλεῖστοι by far the most Hdt. 5, 92, 5.

389. Dative of Manner. – The dative may denote Manner (sometimes with the help of a preposition): thus, τούτῳ τῷ τρόπῳ ἐπορεύθησαν in this manner they proceeded Xn. A. 3, 4, 23. δρόμῳ ῞ῑεντο ἐς τοὺς βαρβάρους on the run they rushed against the barbarians Hdt. 6, 112. So in several adverbial expressions like βίᾷ with violence, σῑγῇ in silence, τῇ ἀληθείᾷ in truth, τῷ ὄντι in reality, λόγῳ in word, ἔργῳ in deed, τῇ ἐμῇ γνώμῃ in my opinion, ταύτῃ (sc. ὁδῷ) in this way.

390. Dative of Respect. – The dative of Manner or Means is sometimes used to show in what respect a thing is so (but this usage has been greatly encroached on by the accusative of specification, § 337): thus, εὐρύτερος ὤμοισι broader in shoulders Γ 194. τῇ φωνῇ τραχύς harsh in voice Xn. A. 2, 6, 9. ἰσχύειν τοῖς σώμασι to be strong in their bodies (i.e. with their bodies) Xn. Mem. 2, 7, 7. ἐγὼ οὔτε ποσίν εἰμι ταχὺς οὔτε χερσὶν ἰσχυρός I am neither swift of foot nor strong of arm Xn. Cy. 2, 3, 6.

391. Dative of Cause. – The dative may be used to denote Cause: thus, ῥῑ́γει ἀπωλλύμεθα we were dying of cold Xn. A. 5, 8, 2. οὐδενὶ οὕτω χαίρεις ὡς φίλοις ἀγαθοῖς you delight in nothing so much as in good friends Xn. Mem. 2, 6, 35. χαλεπῶς φέρω τοῖς παροῦσι πρᾱ́γμασι Iam distressed at the present circumstances Xn. A. 1, 3, 3.

Note. – The dative usually denotes a more active or immediate cause than the genitive of cause (§ 366).

392. Dative of Accompaniment or Association. – The dative (often helped by a preposition) may be used with words denoting (or implying) accompaniment, association, or likeness: thus,:

1. With Verbs. –ἐνθάδ’ ἱκᾱ́νεις νηί τε καὶ ἑτάροισι; are you come hither with your ship and crew? λ 161. σὺν νηί τ᾽ ἐμῇ καὶ ἐμοῖς ἑτάροισιν ἐλθών going with my ship and crew ι 173. ἡμῖν ἐφείποντο οἱ πολέμιοι καὶ ἱππικῷ καὶ πελταστικῷ the enemy followed us with cavalry and peltasts Xn. A. 7, 6, 29. σὺν τῇ ἄλλῃ στρατιᾷ eis Ἀθήνᾱς κατέπλευσε with the remainder of his army he sailed to Athens Xn. Hell. 1, 4, 10. ὠμῑλείτην αὐτῷ they associated with him Xn. Mem. 1, 2, 39. ἀμφισβητοῦμεν ἀλλήλοις we dispute with each other Pl. Phaedr. 263 a. τῷ ἡγεμόνι... ἕπεσθαι to follow the leader Xn. A. 1, 3, 17. ἀλλήλοις σπονδὰς ἐποιήσαντο they made a truce with each other Xn. Hell. 3, 2, 20. ἐμανυτῇ διὰ λόγων ἀφῑκόμην I have been reasoning with myself VL. Med. 872. φιλοσόφῳ ἔοικας you seem like a philosopher Xn. A. 2, 1, 13. The last example may also be explained as a true dative, § 376.

Note. – With words meaning to fight the simple dative means to fight against; the dative with σύν to fight on the side of: thus, Ἀθηναίοις μάχεσθαι to fight against the Athenians; σὺν Ἀθηναίοις μάχεσθαι to fight on the side of the Athenians.

2. With Adjectives. – ὄμοιος Ἀχιλλεῖ like Achilles Xn. Sym. 4, 0. χώρᾱν ὅμορον τῇ Λακεδαιμονίων a land contiguous with that of the Lacedaemonians Dem. 15, 22, κόμαι Χαρίτεσσιν ὁμοῖαι hair like (that of) the Graces (cf. § 717, 6) P 51. πολλοῖς εἰμι διάφορος with many Ím at variance E. Med. 579. So with ὁ αὐτός the same: τὸ αὐτὸ τῷ ἠλιθίῳ the same thing as (lit. with) foolishness Xn. A. 2, 6, 22. ὠπλισμένοι ἦσαν τοῖς αὐτοῖς Κῡ́ρῳ ὅπλοις they were armed with the same weapons as (those of) Cyrus (cf. § 717, 6) Xn. Cy. 7, 1, 2.

3. With Adverbs. – ἑπομένως τῷ νόµῳ conformably to law PL. Leg. 844 e. σύμμιγα τῇσι γυναιξί together with the women Hdt. 6, 58. ἄμα τῇ ἡμέρᾷ at daybreak (lit. along with the day). So with ὁμοῦ together with, ἐφεξῆς neat in order.

Note. – As dative of accompaniment is probably to be explained the idiomatic use of the dative and αὐτός (§ 475, 3, note 2): as νέας τέσσερας αὐτοῖσι τοῖς ἀνδράσι εἶλον they took four ships men and all (lit. with the men themselves) Hdt. 6, 93.

PARTICULAR USES OF THE DATIVE

393. Dative with Substantives. – The verbal idea in a verbal substantive sometimes makes it possible to construe a dative with it: thus, τὴν τοῦ θεοῦ δόσιν ὑμῖν Heaven's gift to you (dative of the indirect object, § 375) PL Ap. 30 d. πεµφθέντα ταύρων πυρπνόων ἐπιστάτην ζεύγλαισι sent to master (lit. as master of) with the yoke (dative of means, § 387) the fiery bulls Ε. Med. 478. κοινωνίᾱ τοῖς ἀνδράσι association with the men (dative of association, § 392) Pl. Rep. 466 c.

394. Dative with Compound Verbs. – Many verbs compounded with ἐν, σύν, or with other prepositions which may be used with the dative (§ 395), are, thus, assisted in taking a dative which the verb of itself could not command: thus, τοῖς ὅρκοις ἐμμένει ὁ δῆμος (= μένει ἐν τοῖς ὅρκοις, see § 398, note 1) the people abides by its oaths Xn. Hell. 2, 4, 43. συνεπολέμει Κῡ́ρῳ he joined with Cyrus in making war Xn. A. 1, 4, 2… ὡς ἐπιβουλεύοι αὐτῷ… that he was plotting against him Xn. 4. 1, 1, 3. ἐπειδὴ προσβάλοιεν ἀλλήλοις when they attacked each other Th. 1, 49. So likewise denominative verbs (§ 298, note) containing these prepositions: as ἐπιχειρῆσαι ἀλλήλοις to lay hands on each other Th. 1, 49.

Note. – Such compound verbs as take the dative (§ 394) are enabled to do so usually by virtue of the meaning of the preposition alone, but sometimes apparently from the general meaning of the compound (compare the first two examples above with the fourth).

395⁹⁷. Prepositions with the Dative. – The use of the Locative Dative (of Place or Time, §§ 384, 385), and the Instrumental Dative (of Accompaniment, § 392), and rarely the True Dative (§ 374), is often made more definite by the help of prepositions. The prepositions ἐν in, and σύν with, are, from their meaning, used with the dative only. Other prepositions used sometimes with the dative ave: ἐπί upon, παρά beside, περί about, πρός at, ὑπό under. For the details of their use see §§ 400–417.

396. 1. Place at which is expressed by the locative (§76, note) or locative dative (§ 384), the latter usually with a preposition: Ἀθήνησι at Athens, ἐν τῇ πόλει in the city.

2. Place within which is expressed by the partitive genitive (usually with a preposition or adverb, § 358): τῆς δεξιᾶς on the right, διὰ πεδίου through the plain.

3. Place from which is expressed by the genitive of separation (usually with a preposition, § 362): ἐξ ἄστεως from town.

4. Place towards or to which is expressed by the accusative of limit of motion (in prose regularly with a preposition, § 339) εἰς τὴν πόλιν into the city.

397. 1. Time at which is expressed by the locative dative (§ 385): τῇ τρίτῃ ἡμέρᾷ on the third day.

2. Time within which is expressed by the partitive genitive (§ 359): ἡμέρᾱς by day (i.e. at some time within the day).

3. Time during which is expressed by the accusative (§ 338): τὴν ἡμέρᾱν ταύτην during (the whole of) this day.

398⁹⁸. The Prepositions were originally adverbs modifying the verb, and serving to define more clearly and exactly the adverbial uses of the cases (see § 398 a). They early came to be united with the verb (Composition, § 298), or to be used regularly with such cases as their meaning would allow; then by a sort of crystallization of their usage certain phrases were formed which came to have special or idiomatic meanings.

For the so-called “Improper Prepositions” see § 418.

Note 1.– The preposition in Greek has sometimes become attached to the verb where in English it would be rendered with the accompanying substantive: as ἀπεστρατοπεδεύοντο οἱ βάρβαροι τοῦ Ἑλληγικοῦ the barbarians encamped away from the Greek army Xn. A. 3, 4, 34.

Note 2. – Not infrequently the preposition is used both with the verb and with the substantive: as πρὸς τὴν κώµην προσιόντες coming forward to the village Xn. A. 3, 4, 33. εἰσβᾶς εἰς πλοῖον embarking in a ship Xn. A. 5, 7, 15. Thus, the Greek could say βαίνω εἰς τὴν πόλιν, or εἶσ βαίνω τὴν πόλιν, or εἶσ βaivw εἰς τὴν πόλιν go into the city, but the tendency was, wherever possible, to join the preposition with the verb.

Note 3. – Greek (like Latin) sometimes differs from English in the point of view from which it uses the cases aud the accompanying preposition; especially words suggesting motion (although denoting rest) are often used with a case and preposition appropriate to motion (to or from), although not so rendered in English: thus, κατέστη εἰς τὴν βασιλείαν Ἀρταξέρξης Artazerzes was established in power Xn. A. 1, 1, 3. τὴν πόλιν ἐξέλιπον… εἰς χωρίον ὀχυρόν they abandoned the city (and went) into a stronghold Xn. A. 1, 2, 24. οἱ ἐκ τῆς ἀγορᾶς καταλιπόντες τὰ ὤνια ἔφυγον the people in the market (lit. from the market) abandoned their wares, and fled Xn. A. 1, 2, 18. So with corresponding adverbs: οὐ γὰρ εἶχον οἴκοθεν for I had none (that I could bring) from home᾿ Ar. Ρax. 522.

GENERAL VIEW OF THE PREPOSITIONS

399⁹⁹. Summary of Usage. – In Attic prose the prepositions are used as follows:

With the Accusative only: ἀνά, εἰς.

With the Genitive only: ἀντί, ἀπό, ἐξ, πρό.

With the Dative only: ἐν and σύν

With the Accusative or Genitive: ἀμφί διά, κατά, µετά, ὑπέρ.

With the Accusative, Genitive, or Dative: ἐπί, παρά, περί, πρός, ὑπό.

For the special functions of the cases which admit the aid of prepositions see §§ 346, 371, 395.

USE AND MEANINGS OF THE PREPOSITIONS

[In the following pages only the general facts about the meanings and uses of the prepositions (besides a few special phrases) are recorded; the exact details about each preposition are to be found in a lexicon].

400¹⁰⁰. ἀμφί about (properly on both sides of; Latin amb-); see § 400 a.

1. With the Genetive (in origin a Partitive Genitive of Place, § 338) about, concerning (rare inprose, περί being generally used instead) ἀμφὶ ὧν εἶχον διαφερόµενοι quarreling about what they had Xn. A. 4, 5, 17.

2. With the Accusative (of Extent, § 338) about.

Place: τῶν ἀμφὶ Μίλητον στρατευοµένων of those engaged in military operations about Miletus Xn. A. 1, 2, 3

Time: ἀμφὶ μέσον ἡμέρᾶς about noon Xn. A. 4, 4, 1.

Derived Meanings: ἀμφὶ τὰ πεντήκοντα about fifty Xn. A. 2, 6, 15.

In Composition: about, on both sides of

401¹⁰¹. ἀνά up (opposed to κατά down); see § 401 a.

With the Accusative:

A. (of Extent, § 338) up, along.

Place: ἀνὰ τὸν ποταµόν up the river Hdt. 2, 96. ἀνὰ τὴν Ἑλλάδα throughout Greece Hdt. 6, 131.

Derived Meanings: ἀνὰ νύκτα along (in) the night Ξ 80. ἀνὰ πᾶσαν ἡμέρᾱν every day Xn. Cy. 1, 2, 8.

B. (of Limit of Motion, § 339) upon.

Place: θῆκεν ἀνὰ μυρίκην he put them up on a tamarisk bush K 466.

Derived Meanings: ἀνὰ κράτος up to (his) strength (i.e. at full speed) Xn. A.1, 10, 15. ἀνὰ ἑκατόν up to a hundred (i.e. by hundreds) Xn. A. 5, 4, 12.

In Composition: up, back, again.

402. ἀντί instead of; for, originally over against (Latin ante) (but in this use it was supplanted by ἐναντίον).

1. With the Genitive (in origin a Partitive Genitive of Place, § 358).

Derived Meanings only: τὰ παρ’ ἐμοὶ ἑλέσθαι ἀντὶ τῶν οἴκοι to choose the lot with me instead of (ic. rather than) that at home Xn. A. 1, 7, 4. ἀνθ᾽ ὧν εὖ ἔπαθον in return for the favors I have received Xn. A. 1, 3, 4. ἀντὶ ἡμέρης νὺξ ἐγένετο instead of day it became night Hdt. 7, 37.

In Composition: against, instead, in return.

403. ἀπό from, away from (Latin ab).

With the Genitive (of separation or source, §§ 362, 365) only:

Place: ἀπὸ θαλάσσης μᾶλλον ᾠκίσθησαν they were settled rather (at a distance) away from the sea Th. 1, 7. λύοντο δὲ τεύχε» ἀπ’ ὤμων and they stripped the armor from their shoulders P 318. ἐθήρευεν ἀπὸ ἵππου he used to hunt on horseback (lit. from a horse, § 398, note 3) Xn. Α 1, 2, 7.

Time: ἀπὸ τούτου τοῦ χρόνου from this time Xn. A. 7, 5, 8.

Derived Meanings: of (remote) agency πλούσιον γίγνεσθαι ἀπὸ τῆς πόλεως to get rich from the state Dem. 24, 124. So, sometimes, in Thucydides: ἀπ᾽ αὐτῶν by them Th. 1, 17.

In Composition: from, away from.

404. διά through (cf. Latin dis-).

1. With the Genitive (originally the Partitive Genitive of Place, § 358) through (some part of):

Place: ἐξελαύνει διὰ Καππαδοκίας he marched through Cappadocia Xn. Α. 1, 2, 20.

Time: διὰ νυκτός through the night Xn. A. 4, 6, 22.

Derived Meanings: δι᾿ ἐτέων εἴκοσι through (ie. at the end of) twenty years Hdt. 6, 118. ἔλεγε… δι᾿ ἑρμηνέως he spoke through an interpreter Xn. A. 2, 3, 17. διὰ πολέμου αὐτοῖς ἰέναι to go through war with them (i.e. to act in a hostile way towards them); so διὰ φιλίᾱς ἰέναι to act in friendly fashion Xn. A. 3, 2, 8. διὰ χειρὸς ἔχειν tο hold through (the grasp of) one’s hand (i.e. in one’s power) Th. 2, 13. τὸν Κῦρον διὰ στόµατος εἶχον they had (the name of) Cyrus on (lit. passing through) their lips Xn. Cy. 1, 4, 25. διὰ τάχους through speed (ie. speedily) Th. 2, 18.

2. With the Accusative (of Extent, § 338) through, throughout, more often through in the sense of because of.

Place and Time: βάν ῥ» ἴμεν… διὰ νύκτα µέλαιναν… διά τ᾿ἔντεα καὶ μέλαν αἷμα they went on their way through the dark night and through the weapons and the black blood K 297.

Cause: διὰ καῦμα through (ie. on account of) heat Xn. A. 1, 7, 6. κακοὶ δοκοῦμεν εἶναι διὰ τοῦτον we appear to be base through (i.e. because of) this man Xn. A. 6, 6, 23.

In Composition: through, also apart (cf. Latin dis-).

405¹⁰². εἰς (or ἐς, see § 405 a) into, to (for *ἐνς: cf. § 47 and latin in with the accusative).

With the Accusative (of Limit of Motion, § 339) only:

Place: διέβησαν ἐς Σικελίᾱν they crossed over into Sicily Th. 6, 2. So also with persons: εἰς ὑμᾶς εἰσιέναι to come into the midst of you PL Ap. 17 c. ἐλθεῖν εἰς Ἀχιλῆα to come into the presence of Achilles P 709.

Time: πρόπαν ἧμαρ ἐς ἡέλιον καταδύντα δαίνυντ’ all day long till setting sun they feasted A 601. ἐς ἐμέ to my time Hdt. 1,92. εἰς τὴν ὑστεραίᾱν οὐχ ἦκεν he didn't come the following day (§ 298, note 3).

Derived Meanings: εἰς τετρακοσίους up to the number of four hundred Xn. A. 3, 3, 6. εἰς ζώνην δεδομέναι given for girdle-money Xn. Α. 1, 4, 9. ἐς τέλος finally (§ 298, note 3).

In Composition: in, into, to.

406¹⁰³. ἓν in (Latin en-do, in).

With the (Locative, § 384) Dative only:

Place: ἐν Σπάρτῃ in Sparta Th. 1, 128. ἐν πολλῇ δὴ ἀπορίᾷ ἦσαν οἱ Ἕλληνες the Greeks were naturally in much perplexity Xn. A. 3, 1, 2. ἐν ἐμοί in me (i.e. in my power) Dem. 18, 193. ἐν τοῖς φίλοις in (i.e. among) their friends Xn. A. 5, 4, 32. ἐν τοῖς ὅπλοις in (ie. under) arms Xn. 4, 3, 7.

Time: ἐν πέντε ἡμέραις in five days Xn. Mem. 3, 13, 5. ἐν ταῖς σπονδαῖς in (the time of) the truce Xn. A. 3, 1, 1.

In Composition: in, on.

407. ἐξ (before consonants ἐκ, § 47) out of, from.

With the Genitive (of Separation or Source, §§ 362, 365) only:

Place: ἐκ Πύλου ἐλθών going out from Pylos A 269.

Time: ἐκ παιδός from a child (ie. since childhood) Xn. Cy. 5, 1, 2. ἐκ τοῦ ἀρίστου from breakfast (i.e. directly after breakfast) Xn. Α. 4, 6, 21.

Of Source: καὶ γὰρ τ᾿ὄναρ ἐκ Διός ἐστιν for a dream, too, is from Zeus A 63. So sometimes of the (remote) agent (§ 372): ἐκ βασιλέως δεδοµέναι given from (i.e. by) the King Xn. A. 1, 1, 6.

Phrases: ἐκ δεξιᾶς on (lit. from, § 398, note 3) the right, ἐκ πολλοῦ at (lit. from, § 398, note 3) a great distance, ἐξ ἴσου on an equality.

In Composition: out of; from, out.

408, ἐπί upon.

1. With the Genitive (Partitive Genitive of Place, § 358, or Time, § 359) upon (some part of):

Place: παρελαύνων ἐφ᾽ ἅρματος riding by (seated) on a chariot Xn. Α. 1, 2, 16. ἐπὶ τοῦ εὐωνύμου (sc. κέρως) on the left wing Xn. A. 1, 8, 9. With words denoting motion, toward (some part of), in the direction of: ἀπιέναι… ἐπὶ Ἰωνίᾱς to be going away toward Ionia Xn. Α. 2, 1, 3.

Time: ἐπ᾽ εἰρήνης in time of peace B 797. ἐπὶ τῶν ἡμετέρων προγόνων in the time of our forefathers Xn. Cy. 1, 6, 31.

Derived Meanings: ἐπ᾽ ὀλίγων τεταγµένοι drawn up a few deep Xn. A. 4, 8, 11.

2. With the (Locative, § 384) Dative upon, at (rarely perhaps with the True Dative (§ 374) toward, against), αὐτοῦ μίμν’ ἐπὶ πύργῳ stay here upon the tower (i.e. at this place, cf. § 408, 1) Z 431. ἔστι… βασίλεια… ἐπὶ ταῖς πηγαῖς τοῦ Μαρσύου ποταμοῦ there is a palace at the source of the Marsyas river Xn. A. 1, 2, 8. ἐπὶ τῇ θαλάττῃ at the sea-shore Xn. A. 1, 4, 1.

Derived Meanings: ἐπὶ τῷ ἀδελφῷ in the power of his brother Xn. A. 1, 1, 4. τὸ ἐπὶ τούτῳ the thing (next) upon (ie. immediately following) this PL. Ap. 27 b. ἐπὶ τούτοις… ὀμόσᾱς having given an oath upon these terms Xn. A. 3, 2, 4. (So often ἐφ᾽ ᾧ, ἐφ᾽ ᾧτε on condition that, § 596), ἔλαβον τῆς ζώνης τὸν Ὀρόντᾱν ἐπὶ θανάτῳ they seized Orontas by the girdle upon (determination of) his death (i.e. as a sign of condemnation) Xn. A. 1, 6, 10. ἐπὶ τίνι μέγα φρονεῖς; on what do you pride yourself? Xn. Sym. 3, 8.

In expressions like ὤρσεν ἐπ᾽ Ἀργεῑ́οισι he roused him against the Argives M293, the dative seems to be in origin a True Dative (§ 374).

3. With the Accusative (of Extent, § 388) upon (or of Limit of Motion, § 339) toward, ὁράων ἐπ᾽ ἀπείρονα πόντον gazing over the boundless deep A 350. ἦλθε θοᾱς ἐπὶ νῆας he came to the swift ships A 12. ἐπὶ τὸν ἵππον ἀναβᾱ́ς mounting upon his horse Xn. A.1, 8, 3. ἐπὶ βασιλέα ἰέναι to be going toward (ie. against) the king Xn. Α.1, 3, 1. ἐξέρχονται δὲ ἐπὶ τὴν θήρᾱν and they go forth to (ie. for) the hunt Xn. Cy. 1, 2, 11. ἐπὶ πολύ to a great extent Th. 1, 6.

In Composition: upon (after), over, against.

409. κατά down (opposed to ἀνά up).

1. With the Genitive:

A. (of Separation, § 362) down from.

Place: ᾤχοντο κατὰ τῶν πετρῶν φερόμενοι they were gone headlong down (from) the cliffs Xn. A. 4, 7, 14. So κατ᾿ ἄκρης from the top down (i.e. completely) Ν 772. κατὰ νώτου in (lit. down from) the rear Th. 4, 33.

B. (Partitive Genitive of Place) down underneath some part of, down over some part of, (down) against a person (cf. § 370). κατὰ χθονὸς ὄμματα πήξἂς fixing his eyes upon (a part of) the ground Γ 217. κατὰ γῆς ὀργυιᾱ́ς γενέσθαι to be (buried) fathoms beneath (a part of) the earth Xn. A. 7, 1, 30.

Derived Meanings: κατ’ ἐμαντοῦ ἐρεῖν to be intending to speak against myself (cf. § 370) PL. Ap. 37 b.

2. With the Accusative (of Extent, § 338) down over, down along (or of Limit of Motion, § 339), down to.

Place: κατὰ ῥόον down stream Hdt. 2, 96. κατὰ πᾶσαν τὴν γῆν (down) along over the entire land Hdt. 3, 109. κατὰ γῆν καὶ κατὰ θάλατταν along over (ie. by) land and sea Xn. A.3, 2, 13. τὸ καθ᾽ αὐτούς the part along by (i.e. opposite) themselves.

Time: κατ’ ἐκεῖνον τὸν χρόνον along (i-e. at) that time Th. 1,139 οἱ καθ᾽ ἡμᾶς those along (at) our time (i.e. our contemporaries).

Derived Meanings: κατὰ πρῆξιν on business γ 72. κατὰ φιλίᾱν for friendship Th. 1, 60. κατὰ τὸν αὐτὸν τρόπον according to the same fashion Xn. Cy. 8, 2, 5. κατὰ κράτος down to (the limit of) strength (i.e. at full speed: cf. ἀνὰ κράτος, § 401) Xn. A. 1, 8, 19. κατὰ τὸν νόµον according to law Xn. Hell. 1, 7, 5.

In Composition: down, against (cf. § 370).

410¹⁰⁴. μετά amid, among (and so often close to, close upon).

1. With the (Partitive, § 354) Genitive (probably originally of Place) among, in company with: μετὰ Βοιωτῶν ἐμάχοντο they fought among the Boeotians N 700. κοινῇ μετὰ σοῦ in common along with you PL. Crit. 46 d. μετὰ πολλῶν δακρύων amid (ie. with) many tears Pl. Αp. 34 c.

2. With the Accusative (of Limit of Motion, § 339) into the midst of, and so, more frequently, close upon, close afer, after: ἵκοντο μετὰ Τρῶας καὶ Ἀχαιούς they came into the midst of the Trojans and the Achaeans Γ 264. βῇ δὲ per’ ἄλλους and he went among (i.e. close after, in pursuit of) others Δ 292. Κάλλιστος μετὰ Ἡηλείωνα most beautiful next (after) Peleus’ son B 674. So often μετὰ ταῦτα (close) after this.

In Composition: with (of sharing), among, after (in quest of). Often it denotes change (of state or position): as μετα βαίνω go fo a new place, μετανοῶ (-έω) change one’s mind, repent.

411. παρά beside.

1. With the Genitive (of Separation, § 362, or Source, § 365) from beside, from the side of: παρὰ δὲ βασιλέως πολλοὶ πρὸς Κῦρον ἀπῆλθον from beside the king many came away to Cyrus Xn. A. 1, 9, 29. φάσγανον ὀξὺ ἐρυσσάμενος παρὰ μηροῦ drawing his sharp sword from beside his thigh A 190. παρ’ Αἰγυπτίων μεμαθηκέναι to have learned from the Egyptians Hdt. 2, 104. So of the remote agent (§ 372): παρὰ πάντων ὁμολογέῖται it is agreed on the part of all Xn. A. 1, 9, 1.

2. With the (Locative, § 384) Dative at the side of; at, with.

Place: ἡμέη… παρὰ πατρὶ γέροντι sitting beside her aged father A 358. τὰ παρὰ θαλάττῃ χωρία the places beside the sea Xn. A. 7, 2, 25.

Derived Meanings: ἐστρατήγει παρὰ Κῡ́ρῳ he was general beside (ie. under) Cyrus Xn. Α. 1, 4, 3.

3. With the Accusative:

A. (of Limit of Motion, § 339) to the side of (usually of persons): πέµπει παρὰ Ξενοφῶντα τοὺς πελταστᾱ́ς he sent the peltasts to (the side of) Xenophon Xn. A. 4, 3, 27.

B. (of Extent, § 338) along beside, alongside of:

Place: βῆ… παρὰ θῖνα he went along beside the shore A 34. ἦν παρὰ τὴν ὁδὸν κρήνη there was a spring alongside the road Xn. A. 1, 2, 13.

Time: παρὰ πάντα μοι τὸν χρόνον προσῄει along (i.e. during) all the time he used to come in to see me Pl. Phaed. 116 d.

Derived Meanings: So ii phrases like παρ’ οὐδέν (lit. alongside of nothing, i.e.) of no account, παρὰ μικρόν (lit. alongside of little, i.e.) nearly, almost, slightly.

Often the idea of passing alongside suggests passing beyond; so παρά often means beyond, contrary to: as often παρὰ τὸν νόµον contrary to law, παρὰ τὴν δόξαν contrary to expectation, etc.

In Composition: beside, along by, beyond.

412¹⁰⁵. περί about, round about (properly on all sides of, cf. ἀμφί, § 400).

1. With the Genitive:

A. (Partitive Genitive of Place, § 358) about (some part of): περὶ σπέεος round about (a part of) the cave ε 68.

More often in the derived meaning of about, concerning: περὶ τῶν ὑμετέρων ἀγαθῶν μαχούμεθα we shall fight about your goodly possessions Xn. A. 2, 1, 12. εἴ τις περὶ τῶν τοιούτων σοφός ἐστι if anybody is wise about such matters Pl. Ap. 19 e.

B. (of Separation, § 362) all about, surpassing, more than: περὶ πάντων ἔμμεναι ἄλλων to be superior to all others A 287. So often in prose in phrases like περὶ πολλοῦ ποιεῖσθαι ( to regard as of greal importance (lit. more than much), περὶ οὐδενὸς ποιεῖσθαι to regard as of no importance, περὶ παντὸς ποιεῖσθαι to regard as of all possible importance (as Xn. Cy. 1, 4, 1).

2. With the (locative, § 384) Dative about (not frequent in Attic prose): ἔχοντες … στρεπτοὺς περὶ τοῖς τραχήλοις with necklaces about their necks Xn. A. 1, 5, 8. δεδιότες περὶ τῷ χωρίῳ being alarmed about the place Th. 1, 60.

3. With the Accusative (of Extent, § 338) round about, about.

Place: ἀπέστειλαν τᾱ̀ς ἑκατὸν ναῦς περὶ Πελοπόννησον they sent off the hundred ships around the Peloponnesus Th.2, 23. περὶ Ἑλλήσποντον ὤν being about (i.e. in the neighborhood of) the Hellespont Dem. 8, 3. τοὺς περὶ αὐτὸν Πέρσᾱς the Persians about him Xn. A. 1, 5, 8.

Time: περὶ τούτους τοὺς χρόνους about these times Th. 3, 89.

Derived Meanings: αἰεὶ περὶ κεῖνον ὀίζυε be ever troubled about him Γ 408. περὶ θεοὺς μὴ σωφρονεῖν not to be sober-minded about the gods Xn. Mem. 1,1, 20.

In Composition: around, surpassing (sometimes = Latin per-).

413. πρό before (Latin prǒ-).

With the Genitive (of Separation, § 362) only:

Place: πρὸ τῶν πυλῶν out in front of the gates Xn. Hell. 2, 4, 34.

Time: πρὸ τῆς μάχης before the battle Xn. A. 1, 7, 13.

Derived Meanings: πρὸ ῡ́μῶν ἀγρυπνήσαντα watching in your behalf (i.e. in front of you as a protection), τὸν δὲ πρὸ δέκα μνῶν ἑλοίμην, ἄν another I would choose rather than ten minae Xn. Mem. 2, 5, 3.

In Composition: before (so sometimes in defense of ), forward, forth.

414¹⁰⁶. πρός at, by, toward (properly in front of).

1. With the Genitive (the Partitive Genitive of Place, § 358) in front of (some part of), toward, over against: τὸ πρὸς ἑσπέρᾱς τεῖχος the wall in front of (ie. toward) the west Xn. Hell. 4, 4, 18. τὰ ὑποζύγια ἔχοντες πρὸς τοῦ ποταμοῦ with the pack animals on the side toward the river Xu. A. 2, 2, 4. πρὸς τῶν Καρδούχων ἰέναι to go in the direction of the Carduchi Xn. A. 4, 8, 26. So by extension πρὸς πατρός on the father's side Hdt. 7, 99. οὐκ ἦν πρὸς τοῦ Κῡ́ρου τρόπου it was not in keeping with Cyru’s character Xn. A. 1, 2, 11. πρὸς θεῶν in the sight of the gods, with words of swearing. So sometimes of the remote agent (§ 272): ὁμολογεῖται πρὸς πάντων he is acknowledged on the part of all people Xn. Α. 1, 9, 20. (Some of these genitives may be explained as Genitives of Separation, § 362.)

2. With the (locative, § 384) Dative at: τὰ δεξιὰ τοῦ κέρατος ἔχων πρὸς τῷ Εὐφρᾱ́τῃ ποταμῷ with the right of the wing (resting) on the Euphrates river Xu. A.1, 8, 4. So, figuratively, πρὸς τούτοις besides this (as Xn. Cy. 1, 2, 8).

3. With the Accusative (of Limit of Motion, § 339) to, toward (properly to a position in front of):

Place: ὑπεχώρησαν πρὸς τὸν λόφον they retreated toward the hill Th. 4, 44. πρὸς βορρᾶν toward the north Th. 6, 2. So ofteri of persons: ἔρχονται πρὸς ἡμᾶς they come to us Xn. A. 5, 7, 20. ἰέναι πρὸς τοὺς πολεµίους to go toward (ie. against) the enemy Xn. A. 2, 6, 10. διαβάλλει Κῦρον πρὸς τὸν ἀδελφόν he slandered Cyrus to his brother Xn. A. 1, 1, 3. So often of feeling toward: ἀθυμοῦσι πρὸς τὴν ἔξοδον they feel discouraged in regard to the expedition Xn. A. 7, 1, 9.

Derived Meanings: Often πρὸς ταῦτα in view of this, πρὸς χάριν in view of favor (i.e. with a view to please), πρὸς βίᾱν with (a view to) violence, etc.

In Composition: to, toward, in addition.

415¹⁰⁷. σύν (also ξύν, cf. Lat. cum) with, in company with; see § 415 a.

With the Dative (of Accompaniment, § 392) only: βασιλεὺς σὺν στρατεύματι πολλῷ προσέρχεται the King is advancing with a great army Xn. A.1, 8, 1. σὺν θεοῖς with (the help of) the gods Xn. Cy. 6, 4, 19. σὺν τῷ νόμῳ (in accordance) with the law Xn. Cy. 1, 3, 17.

In Composition: with, together.

416. ὑπέρ over (Latin super).

1. With the Genitive (Partitive Genitive of Place, § 358) over (some part of), above: ὑπὲρ τῆς κώμης γήλοφος ἦν above the village was a hill Xn. A. 1, 10, 12. στῆ δ᾽ ἄρ᾽ ὑπὲρ κεφαλῆς and it stood over his head (cf. § 358 a, 3d example) B 20.

Derived Meanings: From fighting over comes the derived meaning in behalf of, on account of. πονεῖν ὑπὲρ σοῦ to toil in behalf of you Xn. Α. 7, 3, 31. ὑπὲρ τῆς ἐλευθερίᾱς ὑμᾶς εὐδαιμονίζω I congratulate you on account of our freedom Xn. A. 1, 7, 3. (Later, sometimes, the meaning in behalf of comes to mean little more than about, concerning.)

2. With the Accusative (of Extent, § 338) over, beyond: ὑπὲρ οὐδὸν ἑβήσετο he stepped over the threshold η 135. τοῖς ὑπὲρ Ἑλλήσποντον οἰκοῦσι with those who dwell beyond the Hellespont Xn. А. 1, 1, 9. ὑπὲρ δύναμιν beyond onés ability.

In Composition: over, beyond, in behalf of.

417. ὑπό under (Latin sub).

1. With the Genitive:

A. (of Separation, § 362) from under: ὑπ» ἀπήνης ἡμιόνους ἕλυον they loosed the mules from under the wagon η 5.

B. (Pattitive Genitive of Place, § 358) under.

Place: under some part of, τὰ ὑπὸ γῆς things under the earth Pl. Ap. 18 b. ἔιφίδια ὑπὸ µάλης ἔχοντας with daggers under their arms Xn. Hell. 2, 3, 23. νύμφᾶς… δαῑ́δων ὕπο λαµποµενᾱ́ων ἡγίνεον ἀνὰ ἄστυ under (the light of) torches they were leading the brides trough the city Σ 492.

Agent: from such examples as the last came the regular usage of ὑπὸ with the genitive to denote the Agent (§ 372), i.e. the person (or thing) under whose influence an action takes place: πιεζόµενος ὑπὸ τῶν οἴκοι ἀντιστασιωτῶν being hard pressed by lis political opponents at home Xn. Α.1, 1, 10. εὖ ἔπαθον ὑπ΄ ἐκείνου I was well treated by him Xn. A.1, 3, 4. So not infrequently of things παντελῶς ἂν ὑπὸ λῑμοῦ ἀπολοίμεθα we should utterly perish by starvation Xn. Α. 2, 2, 11.

2. With the (locative, § 384) Dative under, beneath.

Place: εἶχον δὲ τὰ δρέπανα… ὑπὸ τοῖς δίφροις they had their scylhes beneath the chariot boxes Xn. A. 1, 8, 10. ὑπὸ τῇ ἀκροπόλει at the fool of the acropolis Xn. A. 1, 2, 8.

Derived Meanings (chiefly poetic): οἱ… ὑπὸ βασιλεῖ ὄντες (those under the power of the King Xu. Cy. 8, 1, 6. ἐμῷ ὑπὸ δουρὶ δαμέντα subdued beneath my spear Ε 653.

3. With the Accusative:

A. (of Limit of Motion, § 339) to a position under.

Place: αὐτὸν ἀκοντίζει τις παλτῷ ὑπὸ τὸν ὀφθαλμόν somebody hit him with a javelin under the eye Xn. A. 1, 8, 27.

Time: ὑπὸ νύκτα toward (ie. just before) night (cf. Latin sub noctem).

B. (of Extent, § 338) along under.

Place: ἀκρωνυχίᾱν ὄρους, ὑ φ» ἣν ἡ κατάβασις ἦν εἰς τὸ πεδίον a spur of the mountain, along under which was the descent into the plain Xn. A. 3, 4, 37. ἐν ταῖς ὑπὸ τὸ ὄρος κώµαις in the villages along at the foot of the mountain Xn. A.7, 4, 5.

Time: ὑπὸ τὴν παροιχομένην νύκτα along under (i.e. during) the past night Hdt. 9, 58.

In Composition: under, underhandedly, gradually, slightly (cf. Latin sub).

IMPROPER PREPOSITIONS

418¹⁰⁸. Properly the term preposition is applied only to those (earlier) adverbs which can be compounded with a verb into a single word (§ 298), but there are also other adverbs (of varying origin) which, for one reason or another, are regularly found in company with certain cases (mostly the genitive); to these, as a class, is given the name of Improper Prepositions (cf. § 362, 3). The most important of these are: ἄνευ without, ἀντίον and ἐναντίον opposite, ἐκτός and ἔξω outside, ἐντός and εἴσω inside, ἐγγύς and πλησίον near, ἄχρι and µέχρι until, μεταξύ between, πέρᾱν across, πλήν except, ἕνεκα on account of, ἔμπροσθεν in front of, ὄπισθεν behind, χάριν for the sake of, δίκην in the manner of; like, λάθρᾷ without the knowledge of; ἅμα along with, ὡς to, and others (cf. § 418 a).

Of these, all except ἅμα and ὡς are used with the genitive. ἅμα is used with the dative (of Accompaniment, §.392) and ὡς with the accusative (of Limit of Motion, § 339) of names of persons only: as ὡς βασιλέἂ to the King.

Note. – The genitives used with the improper prepositions are of various sorts. For example, ἄνευ is used with the Genitive of Separation (§ 362), ἐγγύς with the Partitive Genitive of Place (§ 358), and χάριν with the Descriptive Genitive (§ 352).

419. Adjectives are used to modify substantives (including words used substantively) and substantive pronouns.

AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES

420. Adjectives (including participles, adjective pronouns, and the definite article, § 443 ff.) agree in gender, number, and case, with the substantives which they modify: thus, ἀνὴρ σοφός a wise man, ἀνδρὸς σοφοῦ of a wise man, ἀνδράσι σοφοῖς to wise men, ὁ παρὼν καιρός the present occasion, οὗτος ὁ ἀνήρ this man, ὁ αὐτὸς ἀνήρ the same man.

Note. – Since an adjective may be equivalent to the genitive case of a substantive, it sometimes happens that an adjective is followed by a genitive case in apposition (§ 317) with the substantive implied in it: as Ἀθηναῖος ὢν πόλεως τῆς μεγίστης being a man of Atens, a city the greatest P1. Ap. 29 d.

421. A predicate adjective belonging to two or more substantives is usually plural (or dual), or it may agree with one (usually the nearer) and be understood with the rest: as αἰεὶ γάρ τοι ἔρις τε φίλη, πολεµοί τε μάχαι τε for always strife, and wars, and battles, are dear to you A 177. For examples of the plural see § 422 below.

422. A predicate adjective belonging to substantives of different gender is commonly masculine if the substantives are felt to denote persons, and neuter if they are felt to denote things: thus, ὡς εἶδε πατέρα τε καὶ μητέρα καὶ ἀδελφοὺς καὶ τὴν ἑαυτοῦ γυναῖκα αἰχμαλώτους γεγενημένους when he saw that both his father and mother and brother and his own wife had been made captives Xn. Cy. 3, 1, 7. ἡ τύχη καὶ Φίλιππος ἦσαν τῶν ἔργων κόριοι Fortune and Philip were masters of the deeds Aeschin. 2, 118. ἔχω αὐτῶν καὶ τέκνα καὶ γυναῖκας… φρουρούμενα I have their wives and children safely guarded (i.e. as chattels) Xn. Α. 1, 4, 8.

423. A predicate adjective may be used substantively (§ 424), and is then neuter, although the subject may be masculine or feminine (cf. § 422): thus, τερπνὸν… τράπεζα πλήρης a thing of joy is a wellfilled board E. Hipp. 109. γυνὴ δὲ θῆλυ κἀπὶ δακρύοις ἔφῡ but woman is a feminine thing and prone to tears E. Med. 928. So often the neuter τί: as τί ἦν τὰ λεχθέντα what was the conversation? (lit. the things said were what?) Pl. Phaed. 58 c.

Note. – In tragedy when a woman speaks of herself in the plural (§ 495, note) she regularly uses the masculine form of the participle: thus, ἀρκοῦμεν ἡμεῖς οἱ προθνγῄσκοντες σέθεν sufficient am I (ie. Alcestis) who am dying in your stead E. Alc. 383.

424. Adjectives Used Substantively. – The substantive which an adjective modifies is often omitted when it is a common word like man, woman, child, thing, land, road, day, hand, etc., which can be readily understood. The adjective alone then acquires the force of a substantive: thus, ὁ σοφός the wise man (sc. ἄνθρωπος), ἡ καλή the beautiful woman (sc. γυνή), ἀγαθόν a good thing (sc. πρᾶγμα), οἱ πολλοί the many (sc. ἄνθρωποι), ὁ Δᾶρείου the son of Darius (sc. υἱός), ἡ Ἀγαμέμνονος the daughter of Agamemnon (sc. θυγάτηρ), τὰ τῆς πόλεως the affairs of State (sc. πρᾱ́γματα), ἡ ἐμαυτοῦ my own land (sc. γῆ), τὴν ἐπὶ Μέγαρα the road to Megara (sc. ὁδόν), τὴν ταχίστην the shortest way (sc. ὁδόν), τῇ ὑστεραίᾷ on the following day (sc . ἡμέρᾷ), τῇ δεξιᾷ with the right hand (sc. χειρἰ).

Norte. – Numerous adjectives have come thus, to be used regularly as substantives: thus, πατρίς fatherland (sc. γῇ), τριήρης trireme (sc. ναῦς), μουσική music (sc. τέχνη), ἑσπέρα evening time (sc. ὥρᾱ), and many others.

425. Adjectives with Adverbial Force. – Sometimes in Greek (as is so frequent in Latin) an adjective modifying a substantive in a sentence may have the effect of modifying the predicate: thus, χθιζὸς ἔβη he went yesterday (ire. χθές) A 424, εὗδον παννύχιοι they slept all night long B 2, τριταῖοι ἀφῑ́κοντο they arrived on the third day Th. 1. 60, κατέβαινον… σκοταῖοι they came down in darkness Xn. A. 4, 1, 10.

THE COMPARATIVE DEGREE

426. The Comparative Degree denotes more than the positive: as σοφώτερος more wise or wiser. The comparative may be used absolutely, or the person or thing with which comparison is made may be expressed.

1. The comparative used absolutely means rather, somewhat, and sometimes (by implication) too much: thus, γελοιότερον rather amusing Pl. Ap. 30 e. χείρους rather bad (i.e. rascals), Lys. 16, 3. θᾶττον too quickly.

2. When the word with which comparison is made is expressed it stands either with ἤ than, or else in the genitive case (§ 363): thus, σοφώτερος ἤ ἐγώ or σοφώτερος ἐμοῦ wiser than I.

Note 1. – When 7 is used after a comparative, the two objects compared regularly stand in the same case, unless the second is the subject of a verb (expressed or understood); then it is in the nominative: thus, φιλοῦσα αὐτὸν μᾶλλον ἢ τὸν βασιλεύοντα Ἀρταξέρξην loving him more than (she did) the king Artazerses Xn. A. 1, 1, 4. ἐπ ἄνδρας στρατεύεσθαι πολὺ ἀμείνονας ἢ Σκύθᾱς to march against men much braver than Scythians (“than against Seythians”) Hdt. 7, 10. Rarely a feeling that the second word is the subject of a verb (expressed or understood) causes it to be put in the nominative: thus, ἀνδρὸς πολὺ δυνατωτέρου ἤ ἐγώ υἱόν the son of a man much more powerful than I (am) Xn. Cy. 5, 2, 28.

Note 2.– The genitive after a comparative is commonly equivalent to the nominative or accusative with ἤ than; less often can it be said to represent some other case: thus, τοὺς φόρους οὐδὲν ἧττον τᾱ̀νδρὸς ἀπεδίδου she used to pay in the tazes no less than (did) her husband (ἢ ὁ ἀνὴρ ἀπεδίδου) Xn. Hell. 3, 1, 12. σεῦ ἀμείνονι φωτὶ μάχεσθαι. to fight with a better man than you (are) Η. 111. Ὀρφέως κάλλῑον ὑμνῆσαι μέλος tο sing a strain more beautiful than (that of) Orpheus E. Med. 543 (cf. § 717, 4).

Note 3.– When two adjectives or adverbs are compared, ἢ is always used, and both stand in the comparative degree: thus, πρόθῡµος μᾶλλον ἢ σοφωτέρᾱ more willing than wise E. Med. 485.

Note 4. – The neuter comparative πλέον more, ἑλᾶττον (or μεῖον) less, when used purely as adverbs, sometimes do not affect the construction of the sentence: thus, ἀποκτείνουσι τῶν ἀνδρῶν οὐ μεῖον πεντακοσίους they killed at least (lit. not less than) five hundred men Xn. A. 6, 4, 24.

Note 5. – Comparatives may also be followed sometimes by ἀντι instead of (§ 402), or ἤ and the infinitive, with or without ὥστε, lit. than so that (§ 645, note), or ἤ κατά (with the accusative) than according to (§ 409, 2).

Note 6. – A thing may be compared with itself under other circumstances; such a comparison is expressed by the genitive of the reflexive pronoun (§ 470), often helped by αὐτός in agreement with the subject (§ 473): thus, ἐγένοντο… μακρῷ ἀμείνονες αὐτοὶ ἑωντῶν they far surpassed themselves Hdt. 8, 86. This usage is sometimes found also with the superlative.

THE SUPERLATIVE DEGREE

427. The superlative degree means most: as σοφώτατος most wise or wisest.

1. The superlative may be used absolutely meaning very, or it may be followed by a partitive genitive (§ 355, 1): thus, ἀνὴρ σοφώτατος a very wise man, or σοφώτατος ἀνδρῶν wisest (one) of men.

Note. – Iu place of the partitive genitive the words ἐν τοῖς (lit. among those who) are also found with the superlative (they do not affect the construction): Uius ἐν τοῖς πρῶτοι δὲ ᾿Αθηναῖοι τὸν σίδηρον κατέθεντο the Athenians were the first among those who put aside the wearing of the sword Th. 1,6. ἐν τοῖς Bapirar’ ἂν ἐνέγκαιμι I should bear it most heavily among those (who would bear it heavily) PL Crit. 43 c.

428. Strengthened Superlative. – The superlative may be strengthened by ὡς or ὅτι (less often by ᾖ, οἷος or other relative words): thus, ὡς τάχιστα as quickly as possible, ὅτι πλεῖστοι as many men as possible, χωρίον οἷον χαλεπώτατον an extremely difficult spot Xn. A. 4, 8, 2 (cf. § 485, note 2).

Note. – Probably a word meaning “possible” has come to be omitted in these expressions, since sometimes such a word is found: as εἰσεφόρησαν ὡς ἐδύναντο πλεῖστα they carried in the most (things) they could Xn. A. 4, 6, 1.

429. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.

1. Andverb in the attributive position (§ 451) is sometimes used with the force of an adjective: thus, οἱ τότε ἄνθρωποι the men of that time.

Note. – Andverb may be modified by a preposition (see § 398): as εἰς ἀεί for ever.

430. Comparative and Superlative of Adverbs. – In general what has been said about the comparative and superlative of adjectives (§§ 426–428) applies also to the comparative and superlative of adverbs: thus, σοφώτερον more wisely or rather wisely, σοφώτατα most wisely ov very wisely, σοφώτατα πάντων (§ 355, 1) most wisely of all.

THE NEGATIVE ADVERBS οὐ and μή

431. Greek possesses two adverbs, οὐ (οὐκ, οὐχ. § 46, οὐχί) and μή, meaning not; of these, οὐ is used in negative expressions of fact; in other negative expressions μή is used.

1. Hence it follows that in expressions of negative command, wish, purpose, condition (including adjectives and participles which imply a condition, § 653, 6), in relative clauses with indefinite antecedent (§ 620 ff.), and with the infinitive used as a substantive (§§ 633, 635) μή is regularly used.

2. But when the infinitive or participle is used in indirect discourse (§ 671), it retains the negative which it would have had in the direct discourse.

3. A particular word in a sentence may by itself be modified by οὐ, even when the sentence as a whole would require μή: so often οὐκ ἐῶ not allow = forbid, οὐ πολλοι not many = few, οὔ φημι deny, etc.: as ἐᾱ̀ν οὐ φῆτε if you deny PL. Ap. 25 b. (CE. § 600, note.)

4. The distinction between od and μή applies also to their compounds: as οὐδείς, μηδείς nobody; οὐδέ, μηδέ not even, etc.

Note. – Irregularities in the use of οὐ and μή. – Occasionally μή is used where we should expect οὐ, or vice versa οὐ where we should expect μή. Thus, a participle or adjective depending on a word which has (or might have) μή may take μή by attraction (§ 316): as κελεύ αἰτοῦ μεῖναι... ἐπὶ τοῦ ποταμοῦ μὴ διαβάντας he bade them stay right there at the river without crossing (here οὐ would be proper (§ 431, 3), but the influence of the infinitive, μεῖναι (§ 431, 1), is too strong) Xn. A. 4, 3, 28. ἐάν τι τοιοῦτον αἴσθῃ σεαντὸν μή εἰδότα if you perceive yourself not to be informed on any suck matter (here εἰδότα, being in indirect discourse (§ 431, 2), would naturally take οὐ, but the influence of theconditional clause (§ 431, 1) permits μή to be used) Xn. Mem. 3, 5, 23.

The infinitive used as a substantive (§ 635 ff.) sometimes appears to have οὐ instead of μή (§ 431, 1), but in such case the negative probably did not originally belong with the infinitive, but with the word on which the infinitive depends: as χρὴ δ’ οὕποθ"… παῖδας περισσῶς ἐκδιδάσκεσθαι σοφούς one ought never (or never ought) to have his children taught to be too wise E. Med. 295.

A few rare examples in Classical Greek of the actual misuse of οὐ and μή are probably to be explained simply as grammatical mistakes.

432. When one simple negative stands next to another simple negative, οὐ οὐ or μὴ μή is never found, but always μὴ οὐ or οὐ μή.

433. Strengthened Negation. – In Greek (unlike English) two negatives do not always make an affirmative. The simple negatives (οὐ and μή) usually retain everywhere their separate negative force, but compound negatives following another negative serve only to strengthen the negation: thus, καὶ οὐδὲν μέντοι οὐδὲ τοῦτον παθεῖν ἔφασαν, οὐδ» ἄλλος δὲ… ἔπαθεν οὐδεὶς οὐδέν however, they say that not even this man suffered any harm, nor did anybody else suffer any harm whatever Xn. A. 1, 8, 20.

434. Sympathetic (or Redundant) Negative. – An infinitive (more rarely a participle or a finite mood) depending on a word which is modified by a negative, or which in itself contains a negative idea (like hinder, forbid, deny, ete.) often takes an extra negative (μή or οὐ) to confirm the idea of negation: as πᾶς γὰρ ἀσκὸς δύο ἄνδρας ἕξει τοῦ μὴ καταδῦναι for each skin will keep two men from sinking(καταδῦναι alone might have been used) Xn. 4. 3, 5, 11. οὐδεμίᾱν ῡ̀μέων ἔχω ἐλπίδα μὴ οὐ δώσειν ῡ̀μέας δίκην I have no expectation that you will not pay the penalty (μὴ δώσειν might have been used) Hdt. 6, 11. So also ὥστε πᾶσιν αἰσχύνην εἶναι μὴ οὐ συσπουδάζειν so that all were ashamed not to take hold earnestly (μὴ συσπουδάζειν alone might have been used, but αἰσχύνη suggests “thought it not right,” and so prepares the way for the extra negative) Xn. Α. 2, 3, 11. εἰνάτῃ δὲ οὐκ ἐξελεύσεσθαι ἔφασαν μὴ οὗ πλήρεος ἐόντος τοῦ κύκλου and they said they would not march out on the ninth if the circle of the moon were not full (μὴ… ἐόντος alone might have been used) Hdt. 6, 106. (A negative may also be implied in a question, as in the second example below.)

435. Double Sympathetic Negative. – So also an infinitive depending on a word which contains a negative idea (§ 434), and which, at the same time, is modified by a negative, may take two extra negatives (μὴ οὐ), one in sympathy with the negative idea in the verb, the other in sympathy with the negative adverb: thus, ἀλλ᾽ οὐδὲν αὐτοὺς ἐπιλῡ́εται ἡ ἡλικία τὸ μὴ οὐχὶ ἀγανακτεῖν but their age does not prevent them from being distressed Pl. Crit. 43 c. τί ἐμποδὼν μὴ οὐχὶ… ἀποθανεῖν; what is to prevent (i.e. there is nothing to prevent) our being put to death? Xn. A. 3, 1, 13.

Note. – Observe that the double sympathetic negative (μὴ οὐ, which is not to be rendered at all in English) is found only with an infinitive dependent on a doubly negative expression; elsewhere (see the last three examples under § 434) one of the negatives (μή) always retains its negative force.

THE ADVERB ἄν

436¹⁰⁹. The adverb ἄν generally serves to give a tinge of indefiniteness to the clause in which it stands. It has no equivalent in English, and often cannot be translated. (For the sake of completeness a summary of its uses is here given.)

437. In independent clauses dv is used with the potential optative (§ 563) and the potential indicative (§ 565).

Note. – For the quasi independent use of ἄν with the infinitive and participle not in indirect discourse see §§ 647 and 662.

438. In dependent clauses ἄν is used regularly with the subjunctive in conditional (§§ 604, 609) and relative (§§ 623, 625) clauses.

Note. – With εἰ, ὅτε, ὁπότε, ἐπεί, or ἐπειδή, the adverb ἄν unites to form ἐᾱ́ν (ἤν, ᾱ̀ν), ὅταν, ὁπόταν, ἐπήν or ἐπᾱ́ν (Hdt. ἐπεάν), or ἐπειδάν (cf. § 439, note 1).

439. In indirect discourse ἄν is retained (even though the mode is changed) where it originally stood in the direct form, except when a dependent subjunctive with ἄν is changed to the optative after a secondary tense; then ἄν disappears. See §§ 670, 2; 673.

Note 1.– Position of &. – The adverb dv never stands at the beginning of its clause. It may stand next to the verb it modifies, or it may stand immediately after some other prominent word in the sentence (as regularly in relative and conditional clauses, § 438). Thus, it may stand with the negative (οὐκ ἄν) or with any emphatic word (πῶς ἄν, μάλιστ᾿ ἄν) or even with the principal verb instead of the subordinate one with which it really belongs: as σὺν ῡ̀μῖν μὲν ἄν οἶμαι εἶναι τῑ́µιος with you I think that I should be honored (i.e. οἶμαι ἂν εἶναι) Xn. А. 1, 3, 6.

Note 2.– ἄν Repeated. – In a long sentence ἄν is sometimes repeated as ῡ́μεῖς δ’ ἴσως τάχ’ ἂν ἀχθόμενοι… κρούσαντες ἄν με … ῥᾷδίως ἂν ἀποκτείνατε but you perhaps might be vezed . . . and strike me… and easily kill me Pl. Ap. 31 a.

Note 3. – Verb Supplied. – Sometimes the verb with which ἄν belongs is to be supplied from the context: as δικαίως μὲν ἐν ὀλιγαρχίᾷ δίκην δόντος… δικαίως δ’ ἂν ἐν δημοκρατίᾷ justly did he suffer punishment at the time of an oligarchy, and justly would he have suffered (sc. δόντος) at the time of a democracy Lys. 12, 78.

440. Conjunctions may be divided into two classes: Cobrdinate and Subordinate. (For “Postpositives” cf. § 452, note.)

441¹¹⁰. Coordinate conjunctions connect words, phrases, or clauses which stand in the same construction.

The principal coordinate conjunctions are: καί and (Latin et), τε and (Latin –que), ἀλλά, ἄταρ but (Latin sed), δέ but (Latin autem), οὐδέ (μηδέ) nor, not even, ἤ or, than, ἄρα, accordingly, so then, γάρ for, οὖν therefore, accordingly (including οὐκοῦν therefore and οὕκουν therefore not), ὥστε so that (§ 595), καί… καί or τε... τε or τε… καί both… and, εἴτε… εἴτε whether… or, οὔτε (μήτε)… οὔτε (μήτε) neither… nor (§ 431, 4), ἤ… ἤ either… or, μὲν… δέ on the one hand… on the other.

Note 1. – καί often has the meaning also or even. The expression ἄλλως τε… καὶ means especially (literally in other ways, and alsο…). The expression τε… καὶ δὴ καὶ means and particularly; thus, δὲ ἐρήμων τε τόπων… ἄλλων καὶ δὴ καὶ ὑπὸ γῆν through other desert places and, in particular, beneath the earth Pl. Phaed. 112 e.

Note 2. – γάρ (-γε + ἄρ) is often used (e.g. in wishes and in questions and answers) merely to show a close relation or sequence between clauses; it is then often best rendered by why, why then, then, etc. The expression καὶ γὰρ… may often be conveniently translated ‘yes, for’ and ἀλλὰ γὰρ… ‘no, for’ or ‘but enough, for’.

442¹¹¹. Subordinate conjunctions connect subordinate clauses with the clauses on which they depend.

The following are the more important subordinate conjunctions (most of them are really relative adverbs): that, because, ὡς how, as, that, εἰ, ἐᾱ́ν (= εἰ + ἄν) if, ὅπως how, as, in order that, ὥστε so that, ἵνα where, in order that, ὅτε, ὁπότε when, since, ἡνίκα, ὁπηνίκα at which time, when, ἐπεί, ἐπειδή (= ἐπεί + δή) when, since, ἔστε until, ἕως as long as, until (§ 618, note), µέχρι, ἄχρι up to that point, until, πρίν before, μή (after expressions of fear) lest.

Note. – οὐχ ὅτι or μὴ ὅτε means not only (literally, perhaps, not to say that…).

443¹¹². Originally ὁ, ἡ, τό was a demonstrative pronoun, meaning this, and in Homer and other early poets (§ 443 a) it commonly has this meaning. In Attic Greek it has come to mean the, but in Attic its use as a pronoun has survived in the following phrases:

1. ὃ μὲν… ὃ δέ (in all the cases) the one… the other, this… that: as

οἳ μὲν ἐπορεύοντο, οἳ δ᾽ εἴποντο the one party proceeded, and the other followed Xn. A. 3, 4, 16. τοὺς μὲν ἀπέκτεινε, τοὺς δ᾽ ἐξέβαλεν some he killed and others he banished Xn. A. 1, 1, 7. ἐπορεύθησαν τὰ μέν τι μαχόμενοι, τὰ δὲ καὶ ἀναπαυόμενοι they proceeded, sometimes fighting a bit, sometimes resting Xn. A. 4, 1, 14.

Very often ὃ δέ… but he, and he, is found without a preceding ὃ μὲν; it regularly shows a change in the subject of the sentence: thus, Κῦρος δίδωσιν αὐτῷ μῡρίους δάρεικούς ὃ δὲ λαβὼν τὸ χρῡσίον στράτευμα συνέλεξεν Cyrus gave him ten thousand daries; and he took the money, and collected an army Xn. A. 1, 1, 9.

2. τὸν καὶ τόν this one and that one; neuter also τὸ καὶ τό, and τὰ καὶ τά: as καὶ ἀφικνοῦμαι ὡς τὸν καὶ τόν and I came to this man and that man Lys. 1, 23.

3. καὶ τόν and he, καὶ τήν and she with an infinitive: as καὶ τὸν εἰπεῖν and he said (cf. also the phrase καὶ ὃς ἔφη and he said, § 144 a).

4. πρὸ τοῦ before this.

Often in Homer and Herodotus, and sometimes in Attic tragedy, ὁ, ἡ, τό is used as a relative pronoun (see § 149 a-b).

ὁ, ἡ, τό AS AN ARTICLE (the)

444. As the definite article ὁ, ἡ, τό the usually marks its substantive as evidently known, or before mentioned: thus, ἡ μάχη the battle, οἱ Ἕλληνες the Greeks, τὰ δέκα ἔτη the ten years (of the Trojan war) Th. 1, 11.

445. So a substantive modified by an attributive (such as an adjective, adjective pronoun, or a limiting genitive) may take the article if the speaker feels that the substantive, because of this limitation, is made well known to his hearers: thus, αἱ πρῶται τάξεις the foremost ranks, ἡ εἱμαρμένη ἡμέρα the fated day, ἡ τῶν πολλῶν δόξα the opinion of the multitude, οὗτος ὁ ἀνήρ this man, ἐμὸς φίλος my friend (but φίλος ἐμός a friend of mine).

446. Article with Proper Names. – So proper names (if well known or previously mentioned) often take the article: thus, ὁ Πλάτων Plato (the famous philosopher), οἱ Ἀθηναῖοι the Athenians; διέβησαν εἰς Σικελίᾱν… ἐλθόντες δὲ ἐς τὴν Σικελίᾱν, κ.τ.λ. they crossed to Sicily… And when they had come to (the) Sicily (above mentioned) Th. 6, 2.

Note. – Βασιλεύς (the) King (of Persia) was probably felt by the Greeks to be a sort of proper name, and so it is often found without the article.

447. Article with the Force of a Possessive. – The article modifying a substantive (§444) may acquire the force of a possessive pronoun: thus, Τισσαφέρνης διαβάλλει τὸν Κῦρον πρὸς τὸν ἀδελφόν Tissaphernes slandered Cyrus to his (lit. the) brother Xn. A. 1, 1, 3. Κλέαρχος… ἔχει τὴν δίκην Clearchus has his (lit. the) deserts Xn. A. 2, 5, 38.

448. Generic Article. – The article is often used to mark a substantive as belonging to a well-known class: thus, ὁ ἄνθρωπος θνητός ἐστιν man is mortal, οἱ γέροντες the old, ἡ ἀλήθεια truth. (The fact that the article is generic is determined by the context.)

449. Article with Predicate Substantive. – The predicate substantive (unless previously mentioned or well known) cannot have the article: thus, Κλέαρχος Λακεδαιμόνιος φυγὰς ἦν Clearchus was a Spartan exile Xn. A. 1, 1, 9. θάνατός ἐστιν ἡ ζημίᾱ the penalty is death Xn. Mem. 1, 2, 62 (but τὰς νέας τὸ ξύλινον τεῖχος εἶναι that the ships were the wooden wall (mentioned in the oracle) Hdt. 7, 142).

Note. – Thus, (§ 449) subject and predicate are clearly distinguished in such sentences as νὺξ ἡ ἡμέρη ἐγένετο the day became night Hdt. 1, 103.

POSITION OF THE ARTICLE

450. The article always precedes the word it modifies.

451. Attributive Position. – Words or phrases standing between the article and its substantive (or immediately after the article, if the substantive precedes or is not expressed) are said to have Attributive Position: thus, ὁ ἀγαθὸς ἀνήρ the good man (cf. § 302).

1. Attributive adjectives (§ 302), and adverbs with adjective force (§ 429, 1), and, in general, most attributive phrases, have attributive position: thus, ἡ Ἑλληνικὴ δύναμις the Greek force, οἱ τότε ἄνθρωποι the men of that time, τὰ σῑγῇ βουλευόμενα the things planned in silence, τὸν ἐκ τῶν Ἑλλήνων εἰς τοὺς βαρβάρους φόβον the fear inspired by the Greeks in the barbarians Xn. A. 1, 2, 18.

452. When article and attributive together are used with a substantive, three different arrangements are possible: Thus, –

(1) ὁ ἀγαθὸς ἀνήρ the good man.

(2) ὁ ἀνὴρ ὁ ἀγαθός the man (namely) the good (one).

(3) ἀνὴρ ὁ ἀγαθός (a) man (namely) the good (one).

Of these three arrangements the first is oftenest found, but the second is by no means uncommon, as ἐν τῇ ἀναβάσει τῇ μετὰ Κύρου on the march inland with Cyrus Xn. Α. 5, 1, 1; the third arrangement is found when the substantive alone would stand without the article: thus, σύνειμι μὲν θεοῖς, σύνειμι δὲ ἀνθρώποις τοῖς ἀγαθοῖς I associate with gods and with men (that is) the good (men) Xn. Mem. 2, 1, 32.

Note. – Postpositives. – The words μέν, δέ, γε, τε, τοι, γάρ, δή, and οὖν, being “postpositive” cannot stand at the beginning of a sentence; hence they are often found in the attributive position (§ 451), but without being attributives: as ὁ μὲν οὖν πρεσβύτερος παρὼν ἐτύγχανε now then the elder happened to be present Xn. A. 1, 1, 2. (In poetry δή sometimes is not postpositive.)

453. Predicate Position of Adjectives. – A predicate adjective (§ 302) cannot stand in the attributive position, but either precedes or follows the article and its substantive: thus, ἀγαθὸς ὁ ἀνήρ or ὁ ἀνὴρ ἀγαθός the man is good.

1. By using adjectives in the predicate position, the Greeks were able to express frequent subordinate predications which are difficult to render into English: thus, ψῑλὴν ἔχων τὴν κεφαλὴν with his head (which was) bare Xn. A. 1, 8, 6. ἱδροῦντι τῷ ἵππῳ with his horse (which was) in a sweat Xn. A. 1, 8, 1.

PECULIARITIES OF POSITION WITH THE ARTICLE

454. With µέσος, ἄκρος, etc. – The adjectives µέσος middle, ἄκρος lit. pointed, sharp, ἔσχατος farthest, ἥμισυς half, when used in the predicate position (§ 453) (often also without the article) mean middle of, tip of or top of, end of, half of (cf. Latin summus mons): thus, μέση ἡ πόλις or ἡ πόλις μέση the middle of the city (but ἡ μέση πόλις the middle city), ἐπ᾽ ἄκρῳ τῷ ὄρει on the top of the mountain.

455. With πᾶς and ὅλος. – The adjectives πᾶς (ἅπᾶς, σύμπᾶς) all and ὅλος whole, when used with the article, commonly have predicate position (§ 453): thus, πᾶσα ἡ πόλις the whole city, πάντες οἱ πολῖται all the citizens, ἐν ὅλη τῇ πόλει in the whole city.

1. But when πᾶς and ὅλος are real attributives, meaning the whole collectively, they have the attributive position: thus, ἡ πᾶσα Σικελίᾱ entire Sicily, οἱ πάντες ἄνθρωποι the whole world Xn. A. 5, 6, 7. τὸ ὅλον στράτευμα the entire army Xn. A. 6, 2, 10.

456. With Demonstrative Pronouns, etc. – A substantive modified by a demonstrative pronoun (οὗτος, ὅδε, ἐκεῖνος) or by ἄμφω, ἀμφότερος both, ἑκάτερος each (of two), ἕκαστος each (of several) commonly has the article (cf. § 445), and the pronoun has the predicate position (§ 453): thus, οὗτος ὁ ἀνήρ this man, ἥδε ἡ γνώμη this opinion, τὼ παῖδε ἀμφοτέρῳ both the children.

Note. – But proper names, and substantives modified by numerals or a relative clause, seldom need the article with a demonstrative: thus,: Αὐτολύκῳ τούτῳ for this Autolycus (here) Xn. Sym. 3, 8. οὗτοι οὓς ὁρᾶτε βάρβαροι these barbarians whom you behold. Xn. A. 1, 5, 16.

457. 1. With Limiting Genitives. – Genitives of the personal pronouns (including αὐτός used for the pronoun of the third person, § 475, 3), when used to limit a substantive with the article, have the predicate position (§ 453): thus, ὁ πατήρ µου or ἐμοῦ ὁ πατήρ my father, οἱ στρατιῶται αὐτοῦ his soldiers.

2. Limiting genitives of other (than personal) pronouns commonly stand in attributive position: thus, ὁ ἐμαυτοῦ πατήρ my own father, τὸ ἐκείνων πλοῖον their boat Xn. A. 1, 4, 8.

3. The Partitive Genitive modifying a substantive with the article nearly always has predicate position (§ 453).

458. Predicate Position Modified. – Most words which regularly have predicate position (§§ 454–457) may, if an attributive word follows the article, stand between the attributive and the substantive: thus, ἡ στενὴ αὕτη ὀδὸς this narrow way Xn. A. 4, 2, 6.

459. Pronouns (like nouns, § 73, 2) may be either substantive or adjective, and some pronouns (like τὶς and αὐτός) are used both substantively and adjectively.

460. Antecedent. – The substantive to which a pronoun refers is called its Antecedent (from antecedo), since normally it precedes the pronoun: thus, αἱ κῶμαι ἐν αἷς ἐσκήνουν the villages in which they were encamped Xn. A. 1, 4, 9.

461. Antecedent Implied. – Anntecedent may be implied, instead of being expressed, by some preceding word: thus, ἐλθὼν εἰς Λακεδαίμονα ἔπειθεν αὐτοὺς στρατεύσασθαι he went to Sparta, and tried to persuade them (i.e. the Spartans) to take up arms Lys. 12, 58. ναυμαχίᾱ παλαιτάτη ὧν ἴσμεν a sea fight the most ancient of the sea fights (i.e. τῶν ναυμαχιῶν) of which we know Th. 1, 13.

462. Agreement of Pronouns (general). – Andjective pronoun agrees in gender, number, and case, with the substantive it modifies (cf. § 420); a substantive pronoun agrees with its antecedent in gender, number, and person (so far as these are distinguished in its inflection, cf. § 314 note), but its case depends on the construction of the clause in which it stands: thus, κεῖνον δ᾿ ἐγὼ θάψω but I (Antigone, nom. sing. fem.) will bury him (Polynices, acc. sing. masc.) S. Ant. 71.

463. A pronoun referring to two or more antecedents follows the same principles of agreement as the predicate adjective (§§ 421–423): as τῇ φωνῇ τεκαὶτῷτρόπῳ… ἐν οἷσπερ ἐτεθράμμην in the manner of speech and behavior in which I had been brought up Pl. Ap. 18 a.

464. Construction according to Sense.– A pronoun sometimes agrees with the real, rather than with the grammatical, gender of its antecedent (see § 315): as βίη Ἡρακλείῃ ὅσπερ… mighty Heracles (lit. might of Heracles) who… Hm. τὸ Ἀρκαδικὸν ὁπλιτικόν, ὧν ἧρχε Κλεᾱ́νωρ the force of Arcadian hoplites whom Cleanor commanded Xn. Α. 4, 8, 18.

1. So a word in the singular may suggest a plural, or vice versa a word in the plural may suggest a corre sponding singular, and the pronoun may agree with the implied antecedent (cf. § 461): thus, ἧ μάλα τις θεὸς ἔνδον, οἳ οὐρανὸν εὑρὺν ἔχουσιν surely a god is within (one of the gods) who hold the broad heavens τ 40 (cf. τις… βροτῶν οἳ one of mortals, who Z 142). ἀνθρώπους τίνυσθον, ὅ τίς κ᾿ ἐπίορκον ὁμόσσῃ you punish mankind (every single one) whoever swears falsely Γ 279.

465. Attraction. – A pronoun may be attracted (§ 316) to the gender and number of its predicate substantive: thus, σκοπεῖν… εἰ δίκαια λέγω ἢ μή: δικαστοῦ μὲν γὰρ αὕτη (i.e. for τοῦτο) ἀρετή to see whether I speak fairly or not, for this is the merit of a judge Pl. Ap. 18 a. (Οἱ. hoc opus, hic labor est Verg. Aen. 6, 129).

PERSONAL PRONOUNS

466. Agreement. – A personal pronoun agrees with its antecedent in person and number; it has no distinction of gender, and its case depends on the construction of the clause in which it stands (§ 462): thus, σὺ δ᾿ εἰπέ μοι but do you (Antigone, 2d pers. nom. sing. fem.) tell me (Creon, 1st pers. dat. sing. mase.) S. Ant. 446.

467. The personal pronouns in the nominative case are not expressed unless emphatic (see § 305).

468. In Attic the pronoun of the third person οὗ, οἷ, etc. (§ 139, 2) is always reflexive (see § 472); to supply its place as a personal pronoun of reference the corresponding forms of αὐτός are used (§§ 140, 1 and 475, 3).

REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS

469. Agreement. – A reflexive pronoun agrees with its antecedent in gender, number, and person; its case depends on its construction in the clause in which it stands.

470¹¹³. Direct Reflexive. – A reflexive pronoun regularly refers to the most important word in the sentence – usually the subject: thus, γνῶθι σαυτόν know thyself; Κλέαρχος… ἀφιππεύει ἐπὶ τὴν ἑαυτοῦ σκηνήν Clearchus rode back to his own tent Xn. A. 1, 5, 12. τοὺς περιοίκους ἀφῆκεν ἐπὶ τᾱ̀ς ἑαυτῶν πόλεις the perioeci he dismissed to their own cities Xn. Hell. 6, 5, 21.

471. Indirect Reflexive. – In dependent clauses a reflexive pronoun may sometimes refer back to the subject of the principal verb (cf. se in Latin): thus, ἐβούλετο δὲ καὶ Κλέαρχος ἅπαν τὸ στράτευμα πρὸς ἑαυτὸν ἔχειν τὴν γνώμην moreover, Clearchus wished the entire army to give its mind to him(self) Xn. Α. 2, 5, 29.

1. But αὐτοῦ, αὐτῷ, etc., (§ 475, 3) is also frequently found in dependent clauses referring to the subject of the principal verb (cf. eius in Latin); thus, τῶν map’ ἑαυτῷ βαρβάρων ἐπεμελεῖτο ὡς… εὐνοῑκῶς ἔχοιεν αὐτῷ he was careful of the barbarians with him(self) that they should be well disposed toward him(self) Xn. A. 1, 1, 5.

Note 1. – Sometimes the reflexive pronoun of the third person is used in referring to the first or second person (cf. § 143 a): thus, εὑρήσετε σφᾶς αὐτοὺς ἡμαρτηκότας you will find that you have made a mistake Xn. Hell. 1, 7, 19.

Note 2. – The plurals of the reflexive pronouns sometimes have the force of a reciprocal (§ 142) pronoun: thus, ἡμῖν αὐτοῖς διαλεξόμεθα we shall converse with one another (lit. with ourselves) [Dem] 48, 6.

472¹¹⁴. The personal pronoun of the third person (οὗ, οἷ, etc.) is in Attic always used as an indirect reflexive (§ 471); rarely the personal pronouns of the first and second persons are so used: thus, λέγεται Ἀπόλλων ἐκδεῖpaι Μαρσύᾱν νῑκήσᾱς ἐρίζοντά οἱ περὶ σοφίᾱς Apollo is said to have flayed Marsyas when he had outdone him in a contest with himself in skill Xn. A. 1, 2, 8. So in the phrase δοκῶ µοι I seem to myself.

473. The use of the reflexive pronouns may be made more emphatic by adding αὐτός (§ 475, 2) in agreement with the subject: thus, αὐτοὶ ἐν αὐτοῖς στασιάζοντες being at variance among themselves Xn. Hell. 1, 5, 9 (cf. the similar use of ipse… se in Latin).

THE INTENSIVE PRONOUN αὐτός

474. Agreement. –The pronoun αὐτός is used both substantively and adjectively. When used as an adjective it follows the rules of agreement for adjectives (§ 420); when used as a personal pronoun of the third person (§ 475, 3) it follows the rules for agreement of such pronouns (§ 462).

475¹¹⁵. Uses of αὐτός. – There are three different uses of αὐτός as follows: –

1. As an adjective in the attributive (§ 451) position αὐτός means same: thus, ὁ αὐτὸς ἀνήρ the same man, ταὐτά (§ 43) the same things (sc. πρᾱ́γματα).

2. As an adjective in the predicate position (§ 453), or without the article, αὐτός means self (myself, yourself, himself, etc.): thus, αὐτὸς ὁ ἀνήρ or ὁ ἀνὴρ αὐτός the man himself, σὺ αὐτός you yourself, etc.

Note. – Frequently in the nominative case (less often in the other cases) the substantive is to be supplied from the context, so that αὐτός appears to stand alone meaning self. αὐτός τε καὶ oἱ σοὶπρόγονοι (you) yourself and your ancestors PL. Crit. 50 e. αὐτὸν ἐλέησον (sc. ἐμέ from the context) pity me myself Ω 503. καὶ Ἀθηναῖοι πάλιν ἐς Εὔβοιαν διαβάντες… κατεστρέψαντο πᾶσαν… Ἑστιαιᾶς δὲ ἔξοικίσαντες αὐτοὶ τὴν γῆν ἔσχον the Athenians again crossed over into Euboea and entirely subdued it… and, afler driving the Histiaeans from their homes, took possession of their land themselves Th. 1, 114. So αὐτὸς ἔφη he himself (ie. the master) said it.

3. In cases other than the nominative, αὐτός may be used substantively as a personal pronoun of the third person (§ 468) him, her, it, them. In Attic this is the regular usage: thus, αὐτὸν σατράπην ἐποίησε he made him satrap Xn. A. 1, 1, 2. οὐδὲν ἤχθετο αὐτῶν πολεμούντων he was not at all disturbed because they were fighting. Xn. Α. 1, 1, 8.

IDIOMATIC USES OF αὐτός

Note 1. – With an ordinal numeral αὐτός is best translated with (n – 1) others: thus, ἠρέθη πρεσβευτὴς… δέκατος αὐτός he was chosen ambassador with nine others (lit. he himself the tenth) Xn. Hell. 2, 2, 17.

Note 2. – Combined with a substantive in the dative case (§ 392, note) αὐτός is best translated and all: thus, τέτταρας ναῦς ἔλαβον αὐτοῖς ἀνδράσι they took four ships, crews and all (lit. with the men themselves) Xen. Hell. 1, 2, 12.

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS

476. Agreement. – A possessive pronoun is an adjective, agreeing in gender, number, and case, with the word it modifies, but its stem conforms to the person and number of its antecedent. Thus, in ὁ ἐμὸς πατήρ my father, ἐμός agrees with πατήρ in gender, number, and case, but its stem ἐμο– corresponds with that of the pronoun of the first person singular.

477¹¹⁶. An equivalent of the possessive pronoun often found is the genitive of the personal pronouns µου, σου, ἡμῶν, ὑμῶν (and for the third person αὐτοῦ, αὐτῆς, αὐτῶν, § 468), always in the predicate position (§ 457, 1): thus, ὁ πατήρ μου my father, ὁ ἀδελφὸς αὐτοῦ his brother, ὁ ἀδὲλφὸς αὐτῆς her brother.

Note. – Since a possessive pronoun is equivalent to a genitive case, a word in the genitive may stand in apposition (§ 317) to a possessive pronoun: thus, δαὴρ αὖτ’ ἐμὸς ἔσκε κυνώπιδος my brother by marriage was he also – of shameless me Γ 180. αὐτῶν γὰρ σφετέρῃσιν ἀτασθαλίῃσιν ὄλοντο for by their own perversity they perished α 7 (cf. § 420, note).

478¹¹⁷. The possessive pronouns (except ὄς and σφέτερος, which are always reflexive) may or may not refer to the subject of the sentence; usually in referring to the subject the genitive of the reflexive pronouns (ἐμαυτοῦ, σεαυτοῦ, ἑαυτοῦ, etc.), in the attributive (§ 457, 2) position, is used. This is the regular prose usage with the third person singular, since ὅς is poetic only: thus, Kλέαρχος τοὺς αὑτοῦ στρατιώτᾶς ἐβιάζετο ἰέναι Clearchus tried to force his own soldiers to proceed Xn. A. 1, 3, 1.

479. A possessive pronoun is sometimes made clearly reflexive by the addition of αὐτός in the genitive case (cf. § 477 note); in the singular this usage is poetic only, but in the plural it is very common: thus, ἐμὸν αὐτοῦ χρεῖος my own need B 45. ἑὸν αὐτοῦ χρεῖος his own need α 409. τοῖς σοῖσιν αὐτοῦ to your own (friends) S. 0. R. 416. ἀπὸ τῆς ἡμετέρᾱς αὐτῶν far from our own (land) Th. 6. 21.

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS

480. Agreement. – The demonstrative pronouns are used both adjectively (§ 420), as οὗτος ὁ ἀνήρ this man, and substantively, as οὗτος this (man), ἐκείνη that (woman), τάδε these (things) (cf. § 459).

481. Of the demonstrative pronouns οὗτος this, that, is the most general in meaning, and is most frequently used. Ὄδε this (here) refers to something near the speaker; ἐκεῖνος that (over there) refers to something remote: thus, οὗτός γ᾿Ἀτρείδης this man (of whom you ask) is Atreu’s son Γ 178. Ἕκτορος ἥδε γυνή this (woman here) is Hector’s wife Z 460. εἰ κεῖνον… ἰδοίατο if they should see that man (i.e. Odysseus, who is now far away) α 163.

For the predicate position of demonstrative pronouns see § 456.

482. Generally in referring backward (to something previously mentioned) οὗτος (less often ἐκεῖνος) is used, while in referring forward (to something about to be mentioned) ὅδε (sometimes οὗτος) is employed: as τεκµήριον δὲ τούτου καὶ τάδε a proof of that (which I have said) is also this (which I am now going to state) Xn. A. 1, 9, 29.

So also τοιοῦτος, τοσοῦτος, usually refer back, while τοιόσδε and τοσόσδε usually refer forward.

Note. – The demonstrative ὅδε is often equivalent to a possessive, or even a personal, pronoun of the first person; this use is especially common in tragedy: thus, σκήπτρῳ τυπεὶς ἐκ τῆσδε χειρός struck by the staff held in this hand (of mine) S. O. R. 811. νυμφευθεῖσα δὲ παρ’ ἀνδρὶ τῷδε but wedded with this man (i.e. with me) E. Med. 1337. ὅδε τοι πάρειµι Here am I, Sir Hdt. 1, 115.

RELATIVE PRONOUNS

483. Agreement. – A relative pronoun agrees with its antecedent (§ 460) in gender and number, but its case depends on the construction of the clause in which it stands: as ἀνὴρ ὃς ἦλθεν a man who came, ἀνὴρ ὃν εἴδομεν a man whom we saw.

484. Attraction. – 1. A relative pronoun is often attracted (§ 316) into the case of its antecedent, especially from the accusative into the genitive or dative: thus, ἄξιοι τῆς ἐλευθερίᾱς ἧς κέκτησθε worthy of the freedom which you possess (ἧς, if not attracted, would be ἤν) Xn. A. 1, 7, 3. εἰ τῷ ἡγεμόνι πιστεύσομεν ᾧ ἂν Kῦρος διδῷ if we intend to trust the guide that Cyrus gives (ᾧ, if not attracted, would be ὅν) Xn. A. 1, 3, 16.

2. Much more rarely the antecedent is attracted into the case of the relative: as πάντων ὧν δέονται πεπρᾶγότες having accomplished everything that they need (for πάντα ὧν) Xn. Hell. 1, 4, 2 (cf. in Latin urbem quam statuo vestra est Verg. Aen. 1, 573).

485. “Incorporation”. – The antecedent is often made a part of the relative clause (usually only when the antecedent is indefinite). Both relative and antecedent then stand in the same case: thus, ἀδικεῖ Σωκράτης οὓς μὲν ἡ πόλις νομίζει θεοὺς οὐ νοµίζων Socrates commits an offense in not believing in the gods which (or what gods) the State believes in Xn. Mem. 1, 1, 1. εἰς δὲ ἣν ἀφῑ́κοντο κώμην μεγάλη ἧν the village at which they arrived was large (i.e. ἡ κώμη εἰς ἥν) Xn. A. 4, 4, 2. εἰ δέ τινα ὀρῴη… κατασκευάζοντα ἧς ἄρχοι χώρᾱς if he saw any one improving the country he governed (i.e. τὴν χώρᾱν ἧς, § 484, 2) Xn. Α. 1, 9, 19. τούτους καὶ ἄρχοντας ἐποίει ἧς κατεστρέφετο χώρᾱς these he made rulers of the territory he subdued (i.e. τῆς χώρᾱς ἣν, § 484, 1) Xn. A. 1, 9, 14. ἐπορεύετο σὺν ᾗ εἶχε δυνάμει he proceeded with what force he had (i.e. σὺν τῇ δυνάμει ἦν, § 484, 1) Xn. Hell. 4, 1, 23.

Observe that attraction into the genitive or into the dative (§ 484) usually takes place if either antecedent or relative would stand in one of those cases. Cf. in English “he gave to what persons he could.”

Note 1. – Here belongs the phrase οὐδες ὅστις οὗ (lit. nobody who… not = ) every one, in which οὐδείς is regularly attracted to the case of the relative (οὐδενὸς ὅτου οὐ, οὐδενὶ ὅτῳ οὐ etc): thus, κλαίων καὶ ἀγανακτῶν οὐδένα ὄντινα οὗ κατέκλασε by his weeping and wailing he broke down the fortitude of everybody Pl. Phaed. 117 d. So similarly θαυμαστός ὅσος lit. wonderful how much, θαυμαστοῦ ὅσου, etc. (adverbially θαυμαστῶς ὡς): as μετὰ ἱδρῶτος θαυμαστοῦ ὅσου with a wonderful amount of sweat (= θαυμαστόν ἐστι μεθ’ ὅσου) PL. Rep. 350d. This attraction is sometimes (rarely) found with other adjectives.

Note 2. – A peculiar attraction and condensation commonly takes place with οἷος, ὅσος, ὁστισοῦν and a few other relatives, by which both the relative and a following nominative are attracted to the case of the antecedent: thus, χαριζόµενον οἵῳ σοι ἀνδρί doing favor to a man like you (the full form would be τοιούτῳ οἷος σὺ εἶ) Xn. Mem. 2, 9, 3. τὴν δὲ γυναῖκα εὗρον ὅσην τ’ ὄρεος κορυφήν and his wife they found as huge as a mountain peak κ 113. Sometimes even with the article: τοῖς οἵοις ἡμῖν to such as we are Xn. Hell. 2, 3, 25. So often with superlatives (see § 428).

486. Antecedent not Expressed. – Anntecedent denoting the general idea of persons or things is seldom expressed, since its gender, number, and case are usually made clear by the context: thus, ἐγὼ δὲ… καὶ ὧν ἐγὼ κρατῶ μενοῦμεν but I and those (nom. plur. masc.) whom I command will remain Xn. Cy. 5, 1, 26. στυγῶν μὲν ἤ μ’ ἔτικτεν hating her (ace. sing. fem.) who bore me E. Alc. 338. εἰδέναι τὴν δύναμιν ἐφ» οὓς ἂν ἴωσιν to know the strength of those (gen. plur. masc.) against whom they are going Xn. A. 5, 1, 8. δεῖταί σου τήµερον τοῦτον ἐκπιεῖν σὺν οἷς μάλιστα φιλεῖς he desires you to drink this up today in company with those (dat. plur. masc.) whom you, most love (§ 484, 1) Xu. Α. 1, 9, 25. So with relative adverbs: ἄξω ὑμᾶς ἔνθα τὸ πρᾶγμα ἐγένετο I will conduct you to the place where the affair occurred Xn. Cy. 5, 4, 21. Cf. in English “he gave to whom he could.”

Note. – Here belong the phrases ἔστων ὅστις (or ὃς)... there is some one who (i.e. somebody), εἰσὶν οἴ… there are those who (i.e. some), but in other cases in the plural regularly ἔστιν ὧν, ἔστιν οἷς, ἔστιν οὄς: thus, ἔστι δ’ ὅστις κατελήφθη and one man was taken off his guard Xn. A. 1, 8, 20. εἰσὲ δὲ οἳ λέγουσι and some (lit. there are those who) say Hdt. 3, 45. πλὴν Ἰώνων καὶ ᾿Αχαιῶν καὶ ἔστιν ὧν ἄλλων ἐθνῶν except the Ιonians and Achaeans and some other nations Th. 3, 92. Rarely ἦν (ἦσαν) is found: ἦν δὲ τούτων τῶν σταθμῶν οὓς πάνυ μακροὺς ἤλαυνεν some of these days’ marches he made very long Xn. A. 1, 5, 7. So also with relative adverbs: ἔστιν οὗ (or ὅπου)… (lit. there is where) somewhere, ἔστιν ὅπως (lit. there is how) somehow, ἔστιν ὅτε (lit. there is when) sometimes, etc.

487. Relative not Repeated. – In a compound (§ 312) relative sentence the relative (pronoun or adverb) is seldom repeated (cf. § 312, 1) with the succeeding verbs: thus, Ἀριαῖος δέ, ὃν ἡμεῖς ἠθέλομεν βασιλέᾱ καθιστάναι, καὶ ἐδώκαμεν καὶ ἐλάβομεν πιστά but Ariaeus, whom we wished to make king and to whom we gave and from whom we received pledges Xn. A. 3, 2, 5. εἶπεν ὅτι οὐδὲν αὐτᾷ µέλοι… ἐπειδὴ πολλοὺς μὲν Ἀθηναίων εἰδείη τοὺς τὰ ὅμοια πρᾱ́ττοντας αὑτῷ, δοκοῦντα δὲ Λυσάνδρῳ καὶ Λακεδαιμονίοις λέγοι he said that he didn't care…, since he knew of many Athenians who were acting in concert with him and since what he proposed was agreeable to Lysander and the Spartans Lys. 12, 74.

Note. – Preposition not Repeated. – A preposition belonging with both antecedent and following relative is seldom repeated with the relative.

488. Use of Relatives. – The indefinite relatives (ὅστις ὁπόσος, ὑποῖος, etc.) ure regularly used when the antecedent is indefinite, but the simple relatives (ὃς, ὅσος, etc.) not infrequently refer to an indefinite antecedent; as ἃ μὴ οἶδα οὐδὲ οἴομαι εἰδέναι what (ever) I don’t know I don't even think that I know Pl. Ap. 21 d.

Note. – Relatives in Exclamations. – Relatives (οἷος, ὅσος, ὡς) are sometimes used in exclamations: as ὦ πάππε, ὅσα πράγματα ἔχεις how much trouble you have, grandpa! (lit. so much trouble as you have! cf. § 485) Xn. Cy. 1, 3, 4. ὡς καλός µοι ὁ πάππος how handsome grandpa is! Xn. Cy. 1, 3, 2.

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS

489. Agreement. – The interrogative pronouns are used both substantively and adjectively (see § 462): as τίς who? τίς ἀνήρ what man?

490. Use. – The interrogatives (pronouns and adverbs, § 151) are used both in direct and in indirect questions, but in indirect questions the indefinite relatives (§§ 150–151) are commonly preferred: as βουλεύεσθαι ὅ τι χρὴ ποιεῖν to consider what must be done Xn. A. 1, 3, 11.

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS

491. The indefinite pronoun τὶς, τὶ, is used both substantively and adjectively (see § 462) as ᾖλθέ τις somebody came, ἀνήρ τις ᾖλθε some man came. (Observe that it does not stand at the beginning of a sentence.)

Note 1. – The indefinite τὶς is often best rendered by ‘α, an’: as ἕτερός τις δυνάστης another nobleman; sometimes it can be rendered by “a sort of” or “something like»: as ἡ γραφὴ… τοιᾱ́δε τις ἦν the indictment was something like this Xn. Mem. 1, 1, 1. τριᾱ́κοντά τινες somewhere about thirty. So τι with adverbs: σχεδόν τι pretty nearly.

Note 2.– Sometimes τὶς meaning anybody implies everybody; as εὖ μέν τις δόρυ θηξάσθω let every one sharpen well kis spear B 382; but usually this meaning is expressed by πᾶς τις or ἑκαστός τις.

THE ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS ἄλλος AND ἕτερος

492. ἄλλος other (of several), and ἕτερος other (of two), are sometimes loosely used, one of them being employed when we might properly expect the other.

IDIOMATIC USES OF ἄλλος AND ἕτερος

Note 1. – By a peculiar idiom in Greek ἄλλος other, rest, often precedes that with which it is contrasted: as τά τε ἄλλα ἐτίμησε καὶ μῡρίους ἔδωκε δάρεικούς he gave me ten thousand darics and honored me in other ways Xn. A.1, 3, 3.

Note 2.– Not infrequently ἄλλος or ἕτερος expresses merely a contrast without being strictly logical, and so can be best rendered by besides: as οὗ γὰρ ἦν χόρτος οὐδὲ ἄλλο οὐδὲν δένδρον for there was no grass, and not even d tree besides (lit. no grass or other tree) Xn. Α. 1, 5, 5.

Note 3. – ἄλλος… ἄλλος (also ἕτερος… ἕτερος means one… another (but this is usually expressed by ὃ μὲν… ὃ δέ § 443, 1). In saying one… one…, another… another…, the second half of the expression, being but a repetition of the first half, is left unsaid, and ἄλλος with itself in a different case (or an adverb from its stem) is sufficient (cf. Latin alius… aliud): thus, ἄλλος ἄλλα λέγει one says one thing, another (says) another Xn. Α. 2, 1, 15.

493. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs. – A transitive verb can take an object in the accusative case (§ 329); an intransitive verb cannot. Thus, γράφω (ἐπιστολήν) I write (a letter) is transitive; καθεύδω I sleep is intransitive.

1. In Greek many transitive verbs are used absolutely as intransitive: thus, λεύπω leave, also fail; ἐλαύνω drive, also march; ἔχω hold, also hold one’s self, be.

Note. – In many of these verbs an object is easily supplied: thus, ἐλαύνω (ἕππον) drive (a horse), τελευτῶ (τὸν βίον) finish (onés life), i.e. die; but this is not the case with all.

2. Some intransitive verbs when compounded with a preposition become transitive (see § 345 and cf. § 324, 2): thus, βαίνω go (intransitive) ; but δια-βαίνω cross (transitive), παρα-βαίνω transgress (transitive).

494. Transitive and Intransitive Tenses – In a few verbs which have at the same time (§ 162, 1) both the first and the second aorist (active and middle), or the first and the second perfect, the first tenses are transitive, and the second intransitive (cf. § 207, note 3). The most important of these are the following (the others are given in the list of verbs, § 729): –

3. On the same principle, in some transitive verbs the perfect (usually the second perfect) is intransitive; thus,: –

AGREEMENT OF VERBS

495. A finite verb (§ 159) agrees with its subject in person and number; thus, (ἡμεῖς) ᾖλθομεν we came, Κῦρος ἐξελαύνει Cyrus marches, δύο ἄνδρε τέθνατον two men are dead Xn. A. 4, 1,19.

Note. – Plural for Singular. – In Greek, as in other languages, the first person plural (modestly) is sometimes used for the singular (sometimes called in English “the editorial we”): as οὐ δικαίως, ἣν θάνω, θανούμεθα unjustly shall I die if Ι am (lit. we are) put to death E. Tro. 904.

496. Agreement with Two or More Subjects. – Two or more subjects taken together, of course, count as a plural (or dual) and so may take a plural (or dual) verb: thus, ἀπολελοίπᾱσιν ἡμᾶς Ξενίᾱς καὶ Πᾱσίων Xenias and Pasion have abandoned us Xn. A. 1, 4, 8. ἧχι ῥοας Σιµόεις συμβάλλετον ἠδὲ Σκάμανδρος where Simois and Secamander join their streams E 774.

1. But with two or more subjects the verb often agrees only with the nearer or more important: thus, βασιλεὺς καὶ οἱ σὺν αὐτῷ εἰσπῑ́πτει εἰς τὸ στρατόπεδον the king and his followers forced their way into the camp Xn. Α. 1, 10, 1.

497. Subjects of Different Persons. – When the subjects are of different persons the verb is of the first person if possible, otherwise of the second: i.e.

as, καὶ ἐψ ὼ, ἔφη, καὶ σὺ πολλὰ… εἴπομεν Both you and I, said he, have said a good deal Xn. Hell. 2, 3, 15.

PECULIARITIES IN AGREEMENT

498. Neuter Plural Subject: – A neuter plural subject regularly has a singular verb: thus, τὸν δ’ οὕποτε κῡ́ματα λείπει this the waves never leave B 396. καλὰ ἦν τὰ σφάγια the sacrifices were favorable Xn. A. 4, 8, 19.

Note. – A neuter plural subject denoting persons, or used distributively, may take a plural verb: thus, τοσάδε μὲν μετὰ Ἀθηναίων ἔθνη ἐστράτευον so many nations were active on the Athenian side Th. 7, 57; ἦσαν ταῦτα δύο τείχη these were two walls Xn. A. 1, 4, 4.

499. Dual and Plural. – A subject in the dual often takes a verb in the plural; less often a subject in the plural, suggesting a dual, takes a verb in the dual: thus, τὼ δὲ τάχ᾽ ἐγγύθεν ἦλθον and soon the two came mear E 275. αἱ δὲ οἱ ἵπποι ἀμφὶς ὁδοῦ δραµέτην and his steeds ran apart along the way Ψ 392.

Note. – Not infrequently dual and plural verbs are found in the same sentence: thus, ἱκέσθην, τὸν δ’ ηὗρον they came, and found him I 185.

500. Collectives. – Words like πᾶς everybody, πλῆθος a multitude, δῆμος people, στρατός army, etc. (collective nouns, § 321), when used to denote persons usually take a plural verb (cf. § 315): thus, ὡς φάσαν ἡ πληθύς thus, spoke the multitude B 278. ὁ ἄλλος στρατὸς ἀπέβαινον the rest of the army began to disembark Th. 4, 32.

501. Agreement with Predicate Substantive. – The verb sometimes agrees with the predicate substantive when the latter is more prominent than the subject (cf. § 316): thus, ἅπαν δὲ τὸ µέσον τῶν τειχῶν ἦσαν στάδιοι τρεῖς the entire distance between the walls was three stades Xn. A. 1, 4,4.

502. The Greek verb has three voices (§ 158): active, middle, and passive.

THE ACTIVE VOICE

503. The active voice represents the subject as acting or being: thus, λέγω say, πάσχω experience, εἶμι go, εἰμί be.

Note. –The context may sometimes show that the active voice means to cause a thing to be done (by others): as Ἀρταξέρξης συλλαμβάνει Κῦρον Artazerzes caused Cyrus to be arrested Xn. Α. 1, 1, 3. So often ἀποκτείνω kill or cause to be put to death, οἰκοδομῶ build or cause to be built, and many others.

THE MIDDLE VOICE

504¹¹⁸. The middle voice represents the subject as interested in the action of the verb. It has a variety of meanings which shade off into one another, and may indicate that the subject acts with or within his own means or powers, or for himself, or (less often) upon himself: thus, λούομαι τοὺς πόδας wash (one’s own) feet, παρέχοµαι furnish (from one’s own resources), λῡ́ομαί (τινα) loose for one’s self, ransom (as ἦλθε λῡσόμενος θύγατρα he came to ransom his daughter A 13), περιτίθεµαι put on (one’s self), ἄγομαι γυναῖκα marry (i.e. lead to one’s own house) a wife, περὶ πολλοῦ ποιοῦμαί τι make anything of much importance (in one’s own eyes), λῡ́οµαι loose one’s self (as πρῶτος ὑπ» ἀρνειοῦ λυόµην, ὑπέλῡσα δ’ ἑταίρους first I loosed myself from beneath the ram, and then I freed my companions ι 463), τρέποµαι turn onés self, παύοµαι stop onés self, cease, πείθοµαι (Lit. persuade one’s self) believe, obey.

505. The middle voice often means to get a thing done either to one’s self or to another person or thing (cf. § 503 note): thus, διδάσκοµαι get taught, διδάσκοµαι τὸν υἱόν get one’s son taught, ἀπογράφομαι τὰς ναῦς have a list of the ships made.

Note. – From this use of the middle it is but a slight step to the use of the middle as passive (§ 514).

506. Active and Middle differently Translated. – The active and the middle voices of the following verbs usually must be differently rendered in English (other similar verbs may be found, and they are to be explained in similar manner):

507. Middle Form in Future only. – On account of the greater natural interest in future events, many active verbs regularly use the middle voice in the future tense: thus, ἀκούω hear, future ἀκούσομαι, aorist ἤκουσα, etc., ἁμαρτάνω miss, future ἁμαρτήσομαι, aorist fuaprov, etc. (cf. § 504 a).

508. Deponent Verbs. – Deponent verbs (§ 108, 3) show the various uses of the middle voice, and differ from other verbs only in having no active forms: thus, ὑπισχνοῦμαι (hold one’s self under) obligate one’s self, promise, δέχομαι receive (for one’s self), αἰσθάνομαι perceive (with one’s own senses), etc.

THE PASSIVE VOICE

509. The passive voice represents the subject as acted upon: thus, ἐλύθην was loosed, or was ransomed.

1. Observe that the passive voice is the passive of the middle as well as of the active, and the context must determine which voice it represents: thus, the passive form ἐλύθην may need to be translated (§ 506) was loosed (λῡ́ω) or was ransomed (λῡ́ομαι), ᾑρέθην was taken (αἱρῶ) or was chosen (αἱροῦμαι), ἐγράφην was written (γράφω) or was indicted (γράφομαι), and so in other tenses (see § 510 note).

510. Passive of Deponent Verbs. – From the preceding section it follows that deponent verbs (§ 508) may have a passive: thus, τοιαῦτα αὐτοῖς… εἴρψασται such things have been done by them (ἐργάξομαι do) Lys. 12, 1. ὲκ σοῦ βιάζονται τάδε this is done with violence by you (βιάξομαι act with violence) S. Ant. 1073. ἑωνήθη was bought (ὠνοῦμαι buy) Xn. Mem. 2, 7, 12.

Note. – The passive meaning usually can be determined only by the context, since there can be no difference of form except in the aorist and future of middle deponents (§ 158, 3).

511. Object of Active Becomes Subject of Passive. – The object of the verb in the active (or middle) regularly becomes the subject when the verb is changed to the passive form (but see § 515, 3): thus, ἐτάχθησαν οἱ Ἕλληνες the Greeks were drawn up (active ἔταξε τοὺς Ἕλληνας).

512. Cognate Accusative Retained with Passive. – A cognate accusative (§ 331) or an accusative of the part affected (§ 335) used with the active is regularly retained in the same case in the passive form; see § 340, 1 (cf. in Latin rogatus est sententiam): thus, γραφεὶς τὸν ἀγῶνα τοῦτον having been indicted in this suit Dem. 18,103 (cf. Μέλητός µε ἐγράψατο τὴν γραφὴν ταύτην Meletus brought this indictment against me Pl. Ap. 19 a). οἴ τε ὑπὸ τοῦ ψύχους τοὺς δακτύλους τῶν ποδῶν ἀποσεσηπότες and those who had their toes frozen off by the cold Xn. A. 4, 5, 12.

Note. – Sometimes intransitive verbs (such as can take only a cognate acousative) are used in the passive; when so used the cognate accusative of the active becomes the subject of the passive: as ὁ κίνδῡνος κινδύνεύεται the risk is run, τὰ χρήματα κινδῦνεύεται the money is risked Dem. 34, 28. Often the passive participles of these verbs are found: as εἰς ἔλεγχον τῶν αὐτοῖς βεβιωμένων καταστῆναι to submit to an examination of their past lives Lys. 16, 1.

513. Active Forms with Passive Force. – The passive of some verbs is supplied by the active voice of a different (intransitive) verb: thus,: –

1. Sο also intransitive second aorists (§ 494, 1) are often equivalent to the passive of the corresponding (transitive) first aorists; as ἀναστάντες ὑπὸ Θεσσαλῶν having been forced to migrate by the Thessalians Th. 1, 12.

514. Origin of the Passive. – Greek originally had no passive voice, and in most tenses the middle voice served also to express the passive meaning. In the aorist an originally intransitive form (cf. § 494, 1, and § 513, 1) of some verbs came to be felt as a passive, and by analogy other aorists passive were formed later. The future passive (with the middle endings) was formed from the aorist passive by adding the regular future suffix (-σο-/ε-): thus, φαίνω show, ἔφηνα showed, ἐφάνην appeared, i.e. was shown, future φανήσομαι shall appear or be shown.

515¹¹⁹. The statement of § 514 will serve to explain the following facts: –

1. The future (rarely the aorist) middle is often used with a passive meaning: thus, ἄξη you shall be led Aesch. Ag. 1632, ἡ γῇ… εὖ φυλάξεται the land will be well guarded Xn. Oec. 4, 9. See § 519, note 2.

2. Many (intransitive) verbs which are regularly followed by the genitive (§ 356) or the dative (§ 376) may be used in the passive voice. In such case the genitive or dative used with the active voice is represented by the nominative as subject in the corresponding passive construction: thus, οὐκέτι ἀπειλοῦμαι ἀλλ᾽ ἤδη ἀπειλῶ ἄλλοις I am no longer threatened, but now I threaten others (active ἀπειλῶ τινι) Xn. Symp. 4, 31. μανθάνουσιν ἄρχειν τε καὶ ἄρχεσθαι they learn to govern and to be governed (active ἄρχω τινός).

Note. – A cognate accusative used with the active is retained in the passive construction (see § 512): thus, πρὸς σοῦ τὰ δείν’ ἐκεῖν» ἐπηπειλημένοι threatened by you with those dread threats (active ἐπειλῶ δεινά τινι) S. Ant. 408.

3. Finally, even an accusative of the direct object is sometimes retained in the same case in the passive construction, while a genitive or dative denoting a person becomes the subject of the passive verb: thus, οἱ ἐπιτετραµμένοι τὴν φυλακήν those intrusted with the guard (active ἐπιτρέπω τὴν φυλακήν τινι) Th. 1, 126. ἀπετμήθησαν τᾱ̀ς κεφαλᾱ́ς they were beheaded Xn. Cy. 8, 8, 3 (cf. τοῦ ἀδελφοῦ ἀπέτεμε τὴν κεφαλήν Xn. A. 3, 1, 17).

Note. – But of course the accusative may become the subject (according to § 512), while the genitive or dative remains in the same case; as ἁπάντων θάνατος κατεγιγνώσκετο the sentence of death was passed on all Lys. 13, 38. ἐμοί… σκῆπτρον καὶ δύναμις πᾶσα ἡ Πολυκράτεος ἐπιτέτραπται to me Polycrate’s scepter and power entire has been intrusted Hdt. 3, 142 (cf. in English “the duty was intrusted to him” and “he was intrusted with the duty”).

516¹²⁰. Agent. – The Agent with passive verbs is regularly expressed by the genitive (§ 372) with ὑπό under, by (§ 414, 1), sometimes with πρός (§ 414, 1) or παρά (§ 411, 1) at the hands of, more rarely with ἐκ (§ 407) or ἀπό (§ 403) from.

1. Often with the perfect or pluperfect passive, and regularly with the verbal in –τέος (§ 666), the agent is expressed by the dative (§ 380). With the verbal in –τέος, the accusative of agent is also sometimes found (see § 6606, note).

517. Primary and Secondary Tenses. – The Primary Tenses are the Present, the Perfect, the Future, and the Future Perfect.

The Secondary Tenses are the Imperfect, the Aorist, and the Pluperfect.

1. The Historical Present (§ 525) counts as a secondary tense, and the Gnomic Aorist (§ 530) as a primary tense. The imperfect indicative with ἄν, referring to present time (§ 565), counts as a primary tense.

2. The subjunctive, optative, and imperative modes (§§ 554; 557; 560) in their independent uses normally look toward the future and so have in all tenses the value of a primary tense.

518. Special Meanings of Tenses from the Context. – The context may sometimes add a special meaning to a tense. Thus, the present or imperfect may be used to describe an action merely attempted (§§ 523; 527), the present may be used in describing an action which is to be completed in the future (§ 524), and the aorist may sometimes express a general truth (Gnomic aorist, § 530).

1. Imaginative Use of the Tenses.– A tense may refer to a time other than that which it denotes, if the speaker’s (or writer's) imagination carries him into that time; so the present tense may be used in describing events actually past (§ 525), and the aorist or the perfect may be used in describing events which have not yet taken place (§§ 531; 537).

THE TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE

519¹²¹. In independent clauses the tenses of the indicative express time absolutely; in dependent clauses they express time relatively to that of the verb on which they depend (cf. § 551, 1).

Note 1. – The Greeks, unlike the English and, more particularly, the Romans, were not careful to distinguish with exactness the temporal relations of subordinate clauses (as is done in Latin by the pluperfect and future perfect), but often employed the same or similar tenses in both subordinate and principal clauses, leaving the exact relation of time to be inferred from the context (cf. also § 676 a): as σχεδὸν δ᾽ ὅτε ταῦτα ἦν καὶ ἥλιος ἐδῡ́ετο about the time that this was going on the sun was setting (ie. at the same time) Xn. A. 1, 10, 15. ἡγεῖτο δ᾽ αὐταῖς Ταμὼς… ἔχων ναῦς ἑτέρᾱς... als ἐπολιόρκει Μιλητον Tamos conducted them, with other ships with which he had been besieging Miletus (i.e. at a prior time) Xn. A. 1, 4,2.

This fact will help to explain the frequent use of the aorist where we might expect the pluperfect (§ 528, 1).

SUMMARY

Note 2.– The tenses of the indicative from the point of view of time, and the manner of viewing the action, may be grouped as follows: –

Occasionally the future active shows a distinction between action ‘continued’ and action brought to pass’: as ἕξω shall hold (cf. ἔχω hold), σχήσω shall obtain (cf. ἔσχον obtained, § 529).

THE PRESENT TENSE

520. The present tense represents an action as going on at the present time: thus, γράφω I write οr I am writing.

1. So the present often expresses a customary action or a general truth: thus, νέᾱ γὰρ φροντὶς οὐκ ἀλγεῖν φιλεῖ the heart of youth is free from care Ε. Med. 48.

521. Present Denoting a Continued State. – The present may denote a continued state as well as a single act. So the present of some verbs may admit two different English translations: thus, βασιλεύω rule or be ruler, νϊκῶ conquer or be victorious, φεύγω flee or be in exile, ἀδικῶ do wrong or be a wrong–doer, αἰσθάνομαι perceive or be cognizant of.

Note. – So ἤκω am come, arrive, and οἴχομαι am gone, may regularly be translated as perfects.

522. Present with Adverbs like πάλαι. --- When adverbs like πάλαι long ago are used with the present tense they mean that the action is continued from the past into the present (cf. in Latin iam dudum): as πάλαι σπεύδοµεν we have long been eager Xn. A. 4, 8, 14.

SPECIAL MEANINGS OF THE PRESENT FROM THE CONTEXT

523. Attempted Action. – The context (§ 518) may imply that the present denotes only an attempted action (ef. § 527). Thus, δίδωμι give may mean also offer, πείθω may mean try to persuade: as σοὶ δ’ Ἀγαμέμνων ἄξια δῶρα δίδωσι Agamemnon offers you worthy gifts Ι 261, ἐξελαύνετε ἡμᾶς ἐκ τῆσδε τῆς χώρᾶς you are trying to drive us out of this country Xn. A. 7, 7, 7.

524¹²². Present with Future Meaning. – It may be implied by the context (§ 518) that an action expressed by the present tense will be completed in the future: thus, εἰ αὕτη ἡ πόλις ληφθήσεται, ἔχεται καὶ ἡ πᾶσα Σικελίᾱ if this city shall be captured, all Sicily as well is (i.e. is going to be) in their power Th. 6, 91: so ἀπόλλυμαι I am going to be put to death Lys. 12, 14.

Note. –The present indicative of εἶμι am going (and its compounds) regularly has a future meaning. This meaning extends to other modes when used to represent the indicative in indirect discourse, and sometimes also to the participle when used to express purpose (§ 653, 5).

525¹²³. Historical Present. – In vivid narration the speaker may for the moment feel that he is living the past over again, and so may use the present tense in describing events already past (§ 518, 1): thus, Θρασύβουλος… Φυλὴν χωρίον καταλαμβάνει ἰσχυρόν… ἐπιγίγνεται τῆς νυκτὸς χιὼν παµπληθής Thrasybulus took (lit. takes) possession of Phyle, a stronghold. There came (lit. comes) on during the night a great snowstorm Xn. Hell. 2, 4, 2–3. Δᾱρείον καὶ Παρυσᾱ́τιδος γίγνονται παῖδες δύο of Darius and Parysatis were (lit. are) born two sons Xn. A. 1, 1, 1.

Note. – The historical present is freely interchanged with the past tenses, and should be regularly translated by a past tense in English: as καὶ ὁ Λύκιος ἤλασέ-τε καὶ ἰδὼν ἀπαγέλλει and Lycius rode (away), and, when he had seen, reported Xn. A. 1, 10, 15.

THE IMPERFECT

526. The Imperfect represents an action as going on in past time: thus, ἔγραφον I was writing.

1. Hence the imperfect often expresses a customary past action: thus, ἐπειδὴ δὲ ἀνοιχθείη, εἰσῇμεν but when [the prison] was opened, we used to go in Pl. Phaed. 59 d.

SPECIAL MEANINGS OF THE IMPERFECT FROM THE CONTEXT

527. Attempted Action. – The context (§ 518) may imply that the imperfect denotes only an attempted action (cf. § 523) or what was likely to happen: thus, Κλέαρχος τοὺς αὑτοῦ στρατιώτᾶς ἐβιάξετο ἰέναι οἱ δ᾽ αὐτὸν ἔβαλλον Clearchus tried to force his own soldiers to move; but they pelted him with stones Xn. A. 1, 8, 1. ἐκαινόμην ξίφειἀλλ᾽ ἐξέκλεψεν… Ἄρτεμις I was like to be slain with the sword; but Artemis stole me thence E. I.T. 27.

Note. – The Imperfect of a truth just realized, and the “Philosophical Imperfect.” – The imperfect in some expressions may be best rendered in English by the present: thus, καὶ τοῦτ’ ἄρ’ ἣν ἀληθὲς, ᾐσθόμην, φίλαι this then is true, as Ι perceive, my friends (lit. was true, but all the time Ι did not realize it) E. Ι.Τ. 351. διαφθεροῦμεν ἐκεῖνο… ὃ τῷ μὲν δικαῖῳ βέλτῑον ἐγίγνετο we shall destroy that which (as we agreed) becomes better by justice PL. Crit. 47 d.

THE AORIST

528. The aorist (ἀόριστος undefined) represents the action as one that simply took place in past time: thus, ἔγραψα I wrote.

1. Aorist instead of Perfect or Pluperfect. – Since the perfect and pluperfect in Greek are used only when the result of the action is lasting (§ 534), the aorist is often used where English would employ the perfect or pluperfect (especially in relative and temporal clauses): thus, τῶν οἰκετῶν οὐδένα κατέλιπεν, ἀλλ᾽ ἅπαντα πέπρᾱκεν of his servants he (has) left not one, but has sold everything Aeschin 1, 99. Κῦρον δὲ µεταπέμπεται ἀπὸ τῆς ἀρχῆς ἧς αὐτὸν σατράπην ἐποίησεν he sent for Cyrus from the government of which he had made (lit. made) him satrap Xn. Α. 1, 1, 9, ἐπεὶ δὲ ἐτελεύτησε Δᾱρεῖος but when Darius (had) died Xn. Α. 1, 1, 3.

529. Inceptive Aorist. – The aorist of verbs whose present can denote a continued state (§ 521) may express the entrance into that state: thus, βασιλεύω rule or be king, ἐβασίλευσα ruled or became king; so ἔσχον held or got possession of (ἔχω hold) ἐδάκρῡσα wept or burst into tears (δακρῡ́ω weep, be in tears).

Note. – Aorist rendered by the Present. – The Greeks sometimes used the aorist with an exactness which admits no English equivalent, and such examples must usually be rendered in English by the present tense: as οὐκ ἂν δυναίμην, τὸ δὲ πρόθῡµον ᾖνεσα I could not do it, but I still approve your zeal (lit. approved at the time you showed your zeal) E. ΙT. 1023. So often ἤσθην am pleased (lit. was pleased, ἔγελασα laugh(ed), ὤμωξα lament(ed), and similar words. So also sometimes in impatient questions: as τί οὖν… οὐ καὶ τὴν δύναμιν ἔλεξάς μοι why don’t you tell me (lit. why didnt you tell me) about their force? Xn. Cy.2, 1, 4.

SPECIAL MEANINGS OF THE AORIST FROM THE CONTEXT

530¹²⁴. Gnomic Aorist. – From the context the aorist indicative may often be seen to express a general truth (“once true always true»): thus, παθὼν δέ τε νήπιος ἔγνω even a fool learns by experience Hes. Ο. D. 218. ἣν δέ τις τούτων τι παραβαίνῃ ζημίᾱν αὐτοῖς ἐπέθεσαν but if anybody transgresses any one of these laws they impose a penalty upon such persons Xn. Cy. 1, 2, 2.

531. Aorist Imagined as Future. – The time of the aorist is sometimes vividly imagined as future (§ 518): thus, ἀπωλόμην ἄρ» εἴ µε δὴ λεύψεις Ι perish if you leave me B. Alc. 386.

THE FUTURE

532. The future denotes that an action will take place at a future time: thus, γράψω I shall write (or shall be writing).

Note. – For the second person of the future implying a permission or a mild command see § 583, note 1.

533. Periphrastic Future. – A periphrastic future (denoting a present intention) is formed by combining the various forms of μέλλω be about to with the present or future (rarely the aorist) infinitive (§ 549, 1): thus, ύμᾶς μέλλω ἄγειν Ι am going to lead you Xn. A. 5, 7, 5. μέλλω γὰρ ὑμᾶς διδάξειν for I am going to inform you PL Ap. 21 b.

1. So the past tenses of μέλλω ave similarly used to express a past intention: as πορεύεσθαι ἔμελλον they were intending to proceed Xn. A. 8, 5, 17. ἔμελλε καταλῡ́ειν he was about to halt for the night Xn. A. 1, 8, 1.

Note. – The simple future appears from the context sometimes to be used like the periphrastic future to express a present intention: as αἷρε πλῆκτρον, εἶ μαχῇ raise your spur if yoúre going to fight Ar. Av. 759. εἰ... πιστεύσομεν if we are going to trust Xn. A. 1, 3, 16.

THE PERFECT AND THE PLUPERFECT

534. The perfect, in Greek, represents an action as completed and lasting at the present time; the pluperfect as completed and lasting at a past time: thus, γέγραφα I have written (and the writing now stands), ἐγεγράφη I had written (and the writing stood completed). ἐτύγχανε γὰρ ἐφ᾽ ἀμάξης πορευόµενος διότι ἐτέτρωτο for he happened to be traveling on a wagon because he had been (and still was) wounded Xn. A. 2, 2, 14.

535. Perfect with Present Meaning. – In the perfect system of many verbs the duration of the result (§ 534) rather than the completion of the act is the more prominent, so that the perfect is best rendered in English by the present (and the pluperfect by the English imperfect): thus,

βέβηκα (βαίνω) be gone or stand (have stepped)

δέδοικα (root δοι-, δει-, δι) be afraid (have been frightened, cf. § 494, 3)

κάκτηµαι (κτῶμαι) possess (have acquired)

μέμνημαι (μιμνῄσκῳ) remember (have reminded myself)

οἶδα (cf. εἶδον saw) know (have seen or perceived)

ἕστηκα (ἵστημι) stand (have set myself, cf. § 494, 3)

πέποιθα (πείθω) trust (have persuaded myself, cf. § 494, 2)

πέφῡκα (φῡ́ω) am by nature (have been produced, cf. § 494, 3), and many others.

536. Periphrastic Perfect. – 1. Other forms of the perfect, besides those already noted (§§ 226; 227; 221, 1), are sometimes found expressed periphrastically: thus, τὸ πρᾶγμ᾽ εἰμὶ τοῦτο δεδρᾱκώς I am the one who has done this deed Dem. 21, 104.

2. The aorist (rarely the perfect) participle with the present or imperfect of ἔχω have is sometimes used as the equivalent of the perfect or pluperfect: thus, ὅς σφε νῦν ἀτῑμάσᾱς ἔχει who has now dishonored her E. Med. 33. πολλὰ χρήματα ἔχομεν ἀνηρπακότες we have plundered much property (lit. have, having plundered) Xn. A. 1, 3, 14.

SPECIAL MEANINGS OF THE PERFECT FROM THE CONTEXT

537. Perfect Imagined as Future. – The time of the perfect is sometimes vividly imagined as future (§ 518, 1): thus, κ῍ᾱν τοῦτ’, ἔφη, νῑκῶμεν, πάνθ᾽ ἡμῖν πεποίηται “if we are victorious in this,” he said, “everything has been accomplished (i.e. will have been accomplished) by us” Xn. A. 1, 8, 12.

THE FUTURE PERFECT

538. The future perfect denotes that an action will be completed (and lasting) at a future time: as γεγραφὼς ἔσομαι I shall have written, γεγράψεται it will have been written (and will stand written).

For the periphrastic forms of the future perfect see § 230.

Note.– The future perfect (as well as the other portions of the perfect system) may emphasize the duration of the result of an action (§534); hence a good many verbs, because of their meaning, regularly employ the future perfect instead of the future (see § 729): as νομίζετε… ἐμὲ κατακεκόψεσθαι you must believe that I shall be cut to pieces Xn. Α. 1, 5, 16. ὅτᾱν δὴ μὴ σθένω, πεπαύσομαι when I have nol strength, then shall I stop S. Ant. 91.

So also commonly with the verbs whose perfect has present meaning (§ 535) µεμνήσομαι shall remember (μέμνημαι remember), ἑστήξω shall stand (ἕστηκα stand) etc.

TENSES OF OTHER MODES THAN THE INDICATIVE

539. The tenses of the indicative mode only (and of other modes representing the indicative in indirect discourse, § 551) really denote time; in the other modes, the tenses (with the very limited exception of the future, see § 548) do not denote time, but only the manner of viewing the action, whether continued (present), or completed (perfect), or simply brought to pass (aorist).

Time may be implied either by the mode (see §§ 554; 557; 560) or by the context (see §§ 541–547, and cf. 519 note 1) but it is not denoted by the tense.

THE PRESENT

540. The present tense in modes other than the indicative represents an action as going on (at any time); as γράφειν to be writing, ἐᾱ̀ν γράφω if I be engaged in writing, γράφε be writing (in the future, § 560), γράφων writing.

TIME IMPLIED BY THE CONTEXT

541. Relation of time with the principal verb may be indicated by the context (§ 539): as ὁπότε θῡ́οι ἐκάλει whenever he was engaged in sacrifice he used (i.e. at the same time) to invite his friends Xn. Mem. 2, 9, 4. εἰ δὲ παρὰ ταῦτα ποιοῖεν, κολάζειν but if they act contrary to this, to punish them (i.e. afterwards) Xn. Cy. 1, 6, 33.

542. Present Participle. – Especially with the present participle the context usually shows that its time is the same as that of the principal verb: as ἔχων ὁπλίτᾱς ἀνέβη he went up with (lit. having) hoplites Xn. A. 1, 1, 2. παρὼν ἐτύγχανε he happened to be present Xn. A. 1, 1, 2.

1. But sometimes the context shows that the present participle refers to a time prior to that of the principal verb (the so-called Participle of the Imperfect”): as οἱ Κῡ́ρειοι πρόσθεν σὺν ἡμῖν ταττόµενοι νῦν ἀφεστήκᾱσιν the troops of Cyrus who were formerly marshaled with us have now deserted Xn. A. 3, 2, 17. παρὼν ἐρῶ since I was present, Ι will tell S. Ant. 1192.

THE AORIST

543. The aorist tense in modes other than the indicative represents the action simply as brought to pass (at any time): as γράψαι to write, ἐὰν γράψω if I write, γράψον write (impv., § 560), γράψᾱς having written (or writing): thus, εἶπε δ᾽ ἐπευξάμενος he spoke in prayer Z 475. οὗτος οὔτε τοὺς θεοὺς δείσᾱς οὔτε Κῦρον τεθνηκότα αἰδεσθεὶς… ἡμᾶς κακῶς ποιεῖν πειρᾶται this man, without any fear of the gods, or respect for Cyrus, who is now dead, is trying to injure us Xn. A. 3, 2, 5. βουλοίμην δ᾽ ἄν… λαθεῖν αὐτὸν ἀπελθών I should like to get away without his knowledge Xn. A. 1, 3, 17.

TIME IMPLIED BY THE CONTEXT

544. Relation of time with the principal verb may be indicated by the context (§ 539): as τῷ ἀνδρὶ ὃν ἂν ἕλησθε πείσοµαι I shall obey the man whom you choose (i.e. shall have chosen) Xn. A. 1, 3, 15. θαυμαστὸν δὲ φαίνεταί μοι καὶ τὸ πεισθῆναί τινας it seems to me wonderful too that some people have been persuaded (lit. the being persuaded of some people) Xn. Mem. 1, 2, 1.

545. Aorist Participle. – Especially with the aorist participle the context often shows that it refers to a time prior to that of the principal verb: as ταῦτα δὲ ποιήσᾱς διέβαινε when he had done this he proceeded to cross Xn. A. 1, 4, 17. καταβᾱ̀ς δὲ διὰ τούτου τοῦ πεδίου ἤλασε when he had come down (from the mountains) he marched through this plain Xn. A. 1, 2, 23 (but cf. § 543, last three examples).

THE PERFECT

546. The perfect tense in modes other than the indicative represent an action as completed (at any time): as γεγραφέναι to finish writing, ἐὰν ψεγράφω if I shall finish writing, γεγράφθω let it stand written, γεγραφώς having written, τὰ γεγραμμένα the things written, τῆς γὰρ ἐπιούσης νυκτὸς πάντα ταῦτα δεῖ πεπρᾶχθαι tonight all this must be completed PL. Crit. 46 a.

TIME IMPLIED BY THE CONTEXT

547. Tt usually happens that an action described by the perfect as completed has taken place at a time preceding that of the principal verb (cf. § 539): thus, οὐδὲ βovλεύεσθαι ἔτι ὥρα, ἀλλὰ βεβουλεῦσθαι it is time no longer to deliberate, but to decide PL. Crit. 46 a. ἔλεγον πάντα τὰ γεγενημένα they told all that had happened (i.e. previously) Xn. Α. 6, 3, 11 (cf. § 546, last example).

THE FUTURE (AND FUTURE PERFECT)

548¹²⁵. The modes of the future (and future perfect) other than the indicative are devoted almost wholly to representing the future indicative in indirect discourse (§ 551); this is the only use of the future optative (which is a comparatively late development, see § 548 a); the future infinitive is almost always so used, and the future participle often. Yet a desire to emphasize the idea of futurity (or present intention) has led to the occasional use of the future infinitive as a substantive, and, more often, of the future participle as an ordinary adjective.

549. Future Infinitive as a Substantive. – The future infinitive (denoting future time relative to the principal verb) is sometimes used as a substantive when it is desired to emphasize the idea of futurity; as πολλοῦ δέω ἐμαυτόν γε ἀδικήσειν I am certainly far from intending to wrong myself Pl. Ap. 37 b.

1. With µέλλω. – Sο often the future infinitive is used with μέλλω am about to to emphasize the future idea (as in English many people say incorrectly “I meant to have written” for “I meant to write” from a feeling that “meant” does not sufficiently express the past idea): thus, μέλλω γὰρ ὑμᾶς διδάξειν for I am about to inform you PL. Ap. 21 b.

2. With Verbs of Promising, etc. – So with verbs (and verbal expressions) meaning to hope, expect, promise, swear, and the like, the idea of a future realization of the hope or promise often leads to the use of the future infinitive. Both the present and aorist, however, are also found with these verbs. The negative is regularly μή (§ 431, 1): thus, ὑπισχνεῖται ἡμιόλιον πᾶσι δώσειν he promised to give to all half as much again Xn. A. 1, 3, 21. τὸν ἐκ ποίᾱς πόλεως στρατηγὸν προσδοκῶ ταῦτα πράξειν from what city is the general to come whom I expect to do this? Xn. A. 3, 1, 14. ἠγγυᾶτο μηδὲν αὐτοὺς κακὸν πείσεσθαι he pledged himself that they should suffer no harm Xn. A. 7, 4, 13. ἐλπίδας ἔχει καλῶς ἔσεσθαι he has hopes that all will be well Xn. A. 4, 3, 8. (Cf. μίᾷ [ἐλπὶς] σωθῆναι one hope of being saved Xn. A. 2, 1, 19.)

Note. – The future infinitive with verbs of promising, etc. (§ 549, 2) is often explained as indirect discourse (§ 671), but the fact that it takes μή as its regular negative points to its use here as the ordinary object infinitive.

550. Future Participle. – The future participle is used only when it is desired to emphasize the idea of future time (or present intention, § 533, note) relatively to the principal verb: thus, ᾖλθε… λῡσόμενός τε θύγατρα he came to ransom his daughter (lit. about to ransom) A 13. ὁ ἡγησόμενος οὐδεὶς ἔσται there will be nobody who will lead us Xn. A. 2, 4, 5.

TENSES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE

551. When the optative, infinitive, or participle stands in indirect discourse (§ 670 ff.), each tense represents. the same tense of the direct discourse, except that the present infinitive or participle may stand for the imperfect indicative, and the perfect infinitive or participle for the pluperfect indicative, since those tenses have only the indicative mode; cf. also § 675, note: thus, (Present) ἔγνωσαν… ὅτι κενὸς ὁ φόβος εἴη they learned that their fear was groundless (i.e. ἔστι) Xn. A. 2, 2, 21. ἀπιέναι φησίν he says he is going away (i.e. ἄπειμι) Xn. A. 2, 2, 1. ὶᾶσθαι αὐτὸς τὸ τραῦμά φησιν he says that he himself treated the wound (i.e. ἰώμην, impf.) Xn. A. 1, 8, 26. ἤκουσε Κῦρον ἐν Κιλικίᾷ ὄντα he heard that Cyrus was in Cilicia (i.e. ἐστί) Xn. A. 1, 4, 5. οἶδα δὲ κἀκείνω σωφρονοῦντε ἔστε Σωκράτει συνήστην I know that even they two kept within bounds so long as they associated with Socrates (i.e. ἐσωφρονεύτην, impf.) Xn. Mem. 1, 2, 18.

(Aorist) Μένονι δὲ καὶ δῶρα ἐλέγετο πέμψαι he was said actually to have sent presents to Menon (i.e. ἔπεμψεν) Xn. Α. 1, 4, 17.

(Perfect) Ὁμολογεῖς οὖν περὶ ἐμὲ ἄδικος γεγενῆσθαι do you admit that you have been a wrong–doer against me? (i.e. γεγένησαι) Xn. A. 1, 6, 8. καταλαµβάνουσι… τὰ πλεῖστα διηρπασµένα they found that most things had been plundered (i.e. διήρπασται) Xn. A. 1, 10, 18.

(Future) ἔλεγεν ὅτι ἡ ὁδὸς ἔσοιτο πρὸς βασιλέᾱ μέγαι he said that the advance would be against the great king (i.e. ἔσται) Xn. A. 1, 4, 11. ἡγεῖτο γὰρ ἅπαν ποιήσειν αὐτὸν εἴ τις ἀργύριον διδοίη for he thought that [Theognis] would do anything, if anybody offered him money (i.e. ποιῄσει, ἐᾱ́ν τις… διδῷ he will do, if anybody offers Lys. 12, 14.

1. When verbs stand in indirect discourse they denote the same time relatively to the verb on which they depend as was denoted by the tense (§ 539) of the direct discourse which they represent. See the preceding examples.

552. In the following pages the various uses of the finite modes are described in detail, but, for the sake of completeness, a brief summary of the uses of each mode is here given.

THE INDICATIVE MODE

553. The indicative mode is used in statements of fact: thus, βασιλεύω I am king, Δᾱρεῖος ἠσθένει Darius was ill.

1. A fact may be assumed for purposes of argument: thus, καὶ δὴ τεθνᾶσι (suppose that) they are dead E. Med. 386. So regularly in conditions εἴπερ ἦν ἀνὴρ ἀγαθός if (i.e. assuming that) he was a good man, etc. Lys. 12, 48.

For the semi-dependent indicative in object clauses and clauses of fearing see §§ 593 and 594, 1.

2. The past tenses of the indicative, probably from their use in conditions contrary to fact (§ 606) (although there was originally no such idea in the usage, cf. § 553, 1), have come to be used also to express hopeless wishes (§ 588) and unaccomplished purpose (§ 590, note 4).

3. Further, ἄν (or κε) may be added to the past tenses of the indicative to give them a potential meaning (§ 565).

THE SUBJUNCTIVE MODE

554. The Subjunctive mode looks always toward the future (thus, having the value of a primary tense, when it is used independently, § 517, 2).

555. The uses of the subjunctive may be grouped under two great divisions: the Volitive Subjunctive (which expresses an action as willed), and the Anticipatory Subjunctive (which anticipates an action as an immediate future possibility), a use in which the subjunctive is closely related to the future indicative (see § 562 a and compare §§ 563 a; 576 a; 594, 1 note).

No hard and fast line, however, can be drawn between these two uses of the subjunctive.

Note. – In the earlier language (i. in Homer) the anticipatory subjunctive (with or without «e or dv) was not infrequently used in independent clauses (§ 562 a), but in this use it was soon crowded out by the future indicative, and only a few relics of this use are to be found in Attic Greek, but in dependent clauses (e.g. conditions and relative clauses) it continued to be regularly used.

556¹²⁶. The uses of the subjunctive may be summarized as follows: –

INDEPENDENT

In exhortations (§ 585) and prohibitions (§ 584).

In deliberative questions (§ 577).

In cautious future assertions with μή and μὴ οὐ (§ 569, 1).

In strenuous future denials with οὐ μή (§ 569, 2).

DEPENDENT

In purpose clauses (§ 590).

After words of fearing (§ 592).

In the protasis of a future more vivid (§ 604) or a present general condition (§ 609).

In relative clauses of anticipation (future, §§ 623; 526–7) or of general possibility (present, § 625).

THE OPTATIVE MODE

557. The optative mode may be briefly characterized as a more remote subjunctive. Hence, in its independent uses, and in most of its dependent uses, it commonly looks toward the future, but more remotely than the subjunctive, and often from the point of view of past time (cf. § 517, 2).

558. The uses of the optative may be grouped under three heads: (1) the Optative of Wish (corresponding to a remote volitive subjunctive, § 555) which expresses an action as desired, but not actually willed to happen; (2) the Potential Optative (corresponding to a remote anticipatory subjunctive, § 555), which expresses what the speaker regards as a more or less remote possibility (see note 1); (3) the Optative in Indirect Discourse, which is a development peculiar to Greek.

Note 1. – In earlier Greek the simple optative could be used potentially, but very soon the adverb ἄν (epic κε) came to be regularly used with it, and the use of the potential optative was extended far beyond its original bounds (cf. § 563 and the examples).

Note 2. – The name optative comes from the use of the mood in wishes (Latin opto wish).

559¹²⁷. The following are the various uses of the optative in Attic Greek: –

INDEPENDENT

In wishes (§ 587).

Potential optative with ἄν (or κε) (§ 563).

DEPENDENT

In future less vivid conditions (§ 605).

In past general conditions (§ 610).

In relative clauses of remote possibility (future, §§ 624; 626–7), or of general possibility (past, § 625).

In indirect discourse (including indirect questions) after a secondary tense (§ 673).

In purpose clauses after a secondary tense (§ 590).

Tn clauses of fearing after a secondary tense (§ 592).

560. The imperative mode (in all tenses) refers always to the future. It is used in commands (§ 583) and prohibitions (§ 584).

STATEMENTS

561. 1. Statements of fact (what is, was, or will be) stand in the indicative mode.

2. Statements of opinion (what may be, can be, might be, could have been, and the like) stand in the optative mode with ἄν, or in a past tense of the indicative with ἄν.

The details of usage are given in the following sections (§§ 562–568).

Note. – Two special forms of statement are described in § 569.

562¹²⁸. Statements of Fact. – A statement of fact is in the indicative mode; the negative is οὐ: thus, ἀναβαίνει ὁ Κῦρος Cyrus goes up, ἠσθένει Δᾱρεῖος Darius was ill, ἔσται ἐπὶ τῷ ἀδελφῷ he will be in the power of his brother, οὓς ᾖσθάνετο he did not perceive.

563¹²⁹. Potential Optative. – A statement of a future possibility, propriety, or likelihood, as an opinion of the speaker, stands in the optative mode with ἄν (Potential Optative); the negative is οὐ: thus, πολλᾱ̀ς ἂν εὕροις μηχανᾱ́ς many devices you could find E. And. 85. ἴσως ἂν οὖν δόξειεν ἄτοπον εἶναι now perhaps it may seem strange Pl. Ap. 31 c. οὓς ἂν οὖν θαυμάζοιμι now I shouldn't wonder Xn. A. 3, 2, 35. οὐκ ἂν μεθείμην τοῦ θρόνου Ι couldn't (i.e. won't) give up the throne Ar. Ran. 830.

The apodosis of a future less vivid condition (§ 605) is regularly expressed by the potential optative.

Note. – Observe that the potential optative may express all shades of opinion, from mere suggestion of possibility to ideal certainty, and the English rendering should be made to suit the context.

564. But a statement of a future (or present) possibility, necessity, or likelihood, can be expressed more exactly as a fact (§ 562) by a present or future tense of the indicative of a verb meaning be possible or necessary, and a dependent infinitive denoting what is possible or necessary to be or to be done: thus, δύναμαι συνεῖναι τοῖς πλουσιωτάτοις I can associate with the very richest (but as an opinion συνείην ἄν) Lys. 24, 9. ἔξεστιν ὑμῖν πιστὰ λαβεῖν παρ’ ἡμῶν it is possible for you to receive pledges from us (λάβοιτε ἄν) Xn. A. 2, 3, 26. ὑμᾶς δ᾽ αὖ ἡμῖν δεήσει ὀμόσαι it will be necessary for you to swear to us (ὁμόσαιτε ἄν) Xn. A. 2, 3, 27.

Note 1. – Observe that the difference between ἔξεστί σοι ἰδεῖν and ἴδοις ἄν you can see is that the former states the possibility as a fact, the latter states what the speaker thinks is a possibility.

Note 2.– Observe that if ἄν is used with the optative of a verb denoting possibility, propriety, or the like, it shows that the possi- bility or propriety is stated as something which, in the opinion of the speaker, might or could exist (cf. § 567 note): as οὐκ ἂν δυναίµεθα ἄνευ πλοίων διαβῆναι we could not have the power to cross (i.e. could not possibly cross) without boats Xn. A. 2, 2, 3.

565¹³⁰. Potential Indicative. – A statement of a past or present possibility or necessity, as an opinion of the speaker, stands in a past tense of the indicative with ἄν (Potential Indicative); the negative is οὐ: thus, θᾶττον ἤ ὥς τις ἂν ὥετο quicker than anybody would have thought Xn: Α. 1, 5, 8. ὕπο κεν ταλασίφρονά περ δέος εἶλεν fear might have seized even a stout-hearted man Δ 421. ἐβουλόμην ἄν I could wish.

The apodosis of a condition contrary to fact (§ 606) is regularly expressed by the potential indicative or an equivalent statement (§ 567).

566. But a statement of a past possibility, necessity, or likelihood, can be expressed more exactly as a fact (§ 562) by a past tense of the indicative of a verb meaning be possible or necessary and a dependent infinitive denoting what was possible or necessary to be or to be done: thus, ἔδει ῥοφοῦντα πίνειν ὥσπερ βοῦν it was necessary to drink in gulps like an ox Xn. A. 4, 5, 32. χρῆν γὰρ Κανδαύλῃ γενέσθαι κακῶς for Candaules was bound to get into trouble Hdt. 1, 8. διαφυγεῖν οὓς ἐδύνατο he could not escape Lys. 1, 27.

567. But nine times out of ten the existence of a past possibility or necessity is stated only to show that what “might have been” or “ought to have been done” did not actually take place; hence such statements usually imply a “contrary to fact” idea (as, “he might have gone,” but the fact is he did not go). (Such a statement is often used as the apodosis of a condition contrary to fact, § 606): thus, τῷ δὲ Ἐρατοσθένει ἐξῆν εἰπεῖν ὅτι οὐκ ἀπήντησεν it was possible for Eratosthenes to say (i.e. “Eratosthenes might have said”) that he had not met him Lys. 12, 31. ἐχρῆν τὸν Σωκράτην μὴ πρότερον τὰ πολιτικὰ διδάσκειν τοὺς συνόντας ἣ σωφρονεῖν Socrates ought not to have taught his associates politics in preference to self-control Xn. Mem. 1, 2, 17. χρῆν γὰρ ἄλλοθέν ποθεν βροτοὺς παῖδας τεκνοῦσθαι mortals ought to beget children from some other source (but they do not) E. Med. 573.

Observe that in such expressions the aorist infinitive refers always to a single act (usually in past time), while the present infinitive refers to continued or repeated action either present or past (cf. § 539).

Note. – Observe that the mere statement of a past possibility or necessity may always suffice to imply that the possible or necessary event did not occur: as εἶδες dv you might have seen (if you had been present), or ἐξῆν ἰδεῖν it was possible to see (if you had been present). If ἄν is used with a past tense of the indicative of a verb denoting possibility, propriety, or the like, it shows that the possibility or propriety is stated not as a fact, but as something which might or could have existed (cf. § 564 note 2): as ἐξῆν ἂν ἰδεῖν it would (or might) have been possible to see. Compare οὐκ ἂν ἑτέρων ἔδει σοι μαρτύρων you would not have any need of other witnesses (but as it is, you do need them) Lys. 7, 22, and εἴπερ ἦν ἀνὴρ ἀγαθός, ἔχρην ἂν – . . μὴ παρανόμως ἄρχειν if he had been a good man, he would have had to rule with-out transgressing the laws (but a bad man is under uo such obligation) Lys. 12, 48, with χρῆν δ᾽ αὐτὸν… προθὐμίαν ἔχειν he ought to have had zeal (but did not have) Lys. 12, 50.

1. The expressions which may be used to denote a past possibility or necessity (without ἄν) are very numerous; some of the most common of them are the following: ἔδει, χρῆν or ἐχρῆν it was necessary, εἰκὸς ἣν it was likely, προσῆκε, ἔπρεπε it was fitting, ἐξῆν it was possible, ἔμελλον was likely to, and many adjectives with ἣν, such as δίκαιον ἣν it was just, ἄξιον ἣν it was proper, αἰσχρὸν ἣν it was shameful, οἷός τ᾽ ἣν was possible, and many others (cf. oportebat, decebat, and the like, in Latin).

568. Statements of Past Recurrent Action. – A statement of an indefinitely recurrent past action, which would take place only under certain circumstances, stands in a past tense of the indicative with ἄν: thus, ἀναλαμβάνων οὖν αὐτῶν τὰ ποιήματα… διηρώτων ἂν αὐτοὺς τί λέγοιεν so, taking up their compositions, Ι would ask (if ever an opportunity occurred) them what they meant Pl. Ap. 22 b. εἴ τις αὐτῷ δοκοίη… βλᾱκεύειν, ἐκλεγόμενος τὸν ἐπιτήδειον ἔπαισεν ἄν if any one seemed to him to be lazy, he would pick out the proper man, and strike him Xn. A. 2, 3, 11.

Note. – Observe that this form of statement does not necessarily express the occurrence as a fact, but only as what could or would take place (and undoubtedly did take place) if circumstances demanded. Hence it is easily explained as a special use of the potential (§ 565) indicative.

569. 1. Subjunctive with μή and μὴ οὐ. – In Plato, and sometimes in other writers, a cautious suggestion is occasionally expressed by the subjunctive with μή (negatively μὴ οὐ, § 432): thus, μὴ ὡς ἀληθῶς ταῦτα σκέμµατα ᾖ τῶν ῥᾷδίως ἀποκτωνύντων may not these really prove to be the considerations of those who thoughtlessly put men to death? PL Crit. 48 c. ἀλλὰ μὴ οὗ τοῦτ᾽ ᾗ χαλεπόν but possibly this may not be so difficult Pl. Ap. 39a.

In origin these expressions are doubtless questions (§ 576 a), but they are usually printed without the mark of interrogation.

2. οὐ μή with the Subjunctive (or Future Indicative). – An emphatic future denial (which sometimes borders on a prohibition, § 584) may be expressed by the subjunctive (or rarely the future indicative) with οὗ µῄ: thus, οὐκέτι μὴ δύνηται βασιλεὺς ἡμᾶς καταλαβεῖν the king will nο longer be able to overtake us Xn. A. 2, 2, 12. οὗ μὴ δυσμενὴς ἔσῃ φίλοις you shall not be hostile to your friends Ε. Med. 1151. οὗ γὰρ μὴ ἀπώσεται for she will not possibly reject it Hdt. 1, 199.

QUESTIONS

DIRECT QUESTIONS

570. Direct Questions may be divided into two classes: (1) ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ Questions, in which the question is asked by the verb, and (2) Word Questions, in which the question is asked by some interrogative pronoun, adjective, or adverb. The latter class cannot be answered by ‘yes’ or ‘no’.

‘Yes’ or ‘No’ Questions

571¹³¹. A ‘yes’ or ‘no’ question may sometimes have the same form as a statement, and the fact that it is a question is determined wholly by the context: thus, ἔστιν ὅ τι σε ἠδίκησα; is there any matter in which I have wronged you? Xn. A. 1, 6, 7.

1. More often the interrogative meaning is made clearer by means of certain adverbs (ἦ, ἆρα): thus, ἦ καὶ περὶ ἵππους οὕτω σοι δοκεῖ ἔχειν; Do you really think this is the case also with horses? Pl. Ap. 25 a. ἆρ’ εἰσίν; ἆρ’ οὐκ εἰσί; Are they (living)? Are they not? E. Ι. T. 577.

Such questions merely ask for information and do not imply any previous assumption on the part of the speaker.

572. Questions with οὐ and μή. – The negative adverbs οὐ and μή (§ 431) either alone or combined with other interrogative adverbs are used also in questions.

1. A question introduced by οὐ (or by ἆρ’ οὗ or οὐκοῦν) asks whether a fact is not so, and expects the answer ‘yes’: thus, οὐχ οὕτως ἔχει; Is it not so? (i.e. “I think it is so; pray tell me if it is not so”) Pl. Ap. 27 c. οὐκ ἐλᾷς; Won't you move on? (i.e. “I think you will”) Ar. Nub. 1298.

2. A question introduced by μή, ἆρα μή, or μῶν (= μὴ οὖν), implies uncertainty (or even apprehension) on the part of the speaker: thus, ἆρα γε μὴ ἐμοῦ προμηθῇ; Are you not perhaps concerned for me? (i.e “I don’t think you ought to be, but I have a feeling that you possibly are”) PL Crit. 44 e. μῶν προσῆκέ σοι; Is it not perhaps possible that he was related to you? E. I. T. 550.

Note. – When οὗ is used in a question introduced by μή it modifies some particular word ( 431, 3): thus, μῶν οὗ πάποιθας; Is it possible that you don’t believe me? E. Med. 732.

573. Rhetorical Questions. – The context often shows that a question is asked merely for effect, with the knowledge that the answer must be ‘no’. Such questions are often (but not always) introduced by μή: as μὴ αὐτὸν οἴῃ φροντίσαι θανάτου καὶ κινδῡ́νου; Think you that he considered death and danger? (“Of course you do not”) PL Ap. 28 d. ἄλλοι δέ ἄρα αὐτᾱ́ς οἴσουσι ῥᾷδίως; Will others then bear them easily? (“Far from it“) Pl. Ap. 37 d.

Note. – The words ἄλλο τι ἤ (or sometimes only ἄλλο τι, the ἤ being omitted), meaning literally (Is it) anything else than, are not infrequently used to introduce a question which the speaker feels must be answered by ‘Yes’: thus, ἄλλο τι ἢ οὐδὲν κωλύει παριέναι; Therés nothing to stop our passing along, is there? Xn. A. 4, 7, 5. ἄλλο τι φιλεῖται ὑπὸ τῶν θεῶν; Isn't it loved by the gods? Pl. Euthypliro 10 d.

ALTERNATIVE QUESTIONS

574¹³². Direct alternative questions are commonly introduced by πότερον (πότερα)… ἤ (Latin, utrum… an) whether… or, or separated by ἤ alone: thus, πότερον ἐᾷς ἄρχειν ἣ ἄλλον καθίστης; Do you let im rule or do you appoint another? Xn. Cy. 3, 1, 12. φῂς ἣ οὔ; Do you say yes or no? PL. Ap. 27 d.

Note. – The first part of a double question is sometimes omitted (cf. Latin an in questions): thus, ἐπιστάμενος πάλαι ἀπεκρύπτου ἢ ὀκνεῖς, ἔφη, ἄρξαι; “You have been concealing your knowledge this long time. (Is there some hidden reason for this) or do you hesitate to begin?” said he. Xn. Mem. 2, 3, 14.

WORD QUESTIONS

575. A question may be expressed by any interrogative pronoun, adjective, or adverb: thus, τίς ἀγορεύειν βούλεται; who wishes to speak? τί εἶπε; what did he say? τίνος ἕνεκα καλεῖ μέ τις; what will anybody invite me for? ποίᾶς συμμαχίᾱς δεόµεθα; what kind of alliance do we want? πότε ἦλθεν; when did he come?

Note 1. – In Greek, unlike English, the interrogative word is often connected with some subordinate word of the sentence instead of with the principal verb: thus, τὸν ἐκ ποίᾱς πόλεως στρατηγὸν προσδοκῶ ταῦτα πρᾱ́ξειν; From what sort of a city must the general be whom 1 expect to do this? (lit. the general from what sort of a city do I expect will do this?) Xn. A. 3, 1, 14. For τί μαθών and τί παθών, see § 653, note 4.

Note 2. – Greek sometimes condenses two interrogatives into one sentence: thus, τίς πόθεν εἰς ἀνδρῶν; Who are you, and from where among men do you come? α 170. πῶς ἐκ τίνος νεὼς… ἥκετε; In what way and from what skip have you come? Ἓ. Hel. 1543.

MODES IN DIRECT QUESTIONS

576¹³³. Questions are distinguished from statements usually by some interrogative word, but sometimes only by the context (§ 571); hence the modes used in statements are used also in questions:

thus, (Indicative) σοὶ δοκεῖ; Do you think so? τί σοι δοκεῖ; What do you think? οὔ σοι δοκεῖ; Don't you think so? μή σοι δοκεῖ; Is it not perhaps possible that you think so?

(potential optative) τίς οὐς ἂν ὁμολογήσειεν; Who would mot admit? Xn. Mem. 1, 1, 5.

(potential indicative) πῶς ἂν πολλοὶ μὲν ἐπεθῡ́μουν τυραννεῖν; How could many wish to rule? Xn. Hier. 1, 9. πῶς ἂν… ἐγώ τί σ᾿ ἠδίκησα; How could I have done you any wrong? Dem. 37, 57.

577. Deliberative Questions. – Questions expressing doubt or deliberation stand in the subjunctive mode (Deliberative Subjunctive). The negative is μή. Such questions are often made more explicit by the addition of βούλῃ or βούλεσθε do you wish? Thus, ποῖ τράπωμαι; ποῖ πορευθῶ; whither shall t turn? whither go? Ε. Hec. 1099. εἴπω τι τῶν εἰωθότων, ὦ δέσποτα; Shall I make one of the stock jokes, Sir? Ar. Ran. 1. μηδ» ἐάν τι ὠνῶμαι… ἔρωμαι ὁπόσου πωλεῖ; And, if I am marketing, am I not to ask the price of anything? Xn. Mem. 1, 2, 36. βούλῃ σκοπῶμεν; Shall we consider, if you please? Xn. Mem. 2, 1, 1.

INDIRECT QUESTIONS

578. Indirect ‘yes’ or ‘no’ questions are introduced by εἰ whether, if (sometimes by ἆρα or μή): thus, ἠρώτησεν εἰ ἤδη ἀποκεκριμένοι εἶεν he asked if they had already given their answer Xn. A. 2, 1, 15.

579¹³⁴. Alternative indirect ‘yes’ or ‘no’ questions are introduced by πότερον (πότερα)… ἤ or by εἰ… ἤ or by εἴτε… εἴτε; as διηρώτᾶ τὸν Κῦρον πότερον βούλοιτο μένειν ἣ ἁπιέναι she asked Cyrus whether he wanted to stay or to go back Xn. Cy. 1, 3, 15. ἐβουλεύετο… εἰ πέμποιέν τινας ἣ πάντες ἴοιεν he considered whether they should send some, or all should go Xn. A. 1, 10, 5.

580. In indirect word-questions (§ 575) the interrogative of the direct form may be retained (τίς, ποῦ, etc.), or it may be represented by the corresponding indefinite relative (ὅστις, ὅπου, etc., § 490): as βουλεύεσθαι ὅ τι χρὴ ποιεῖν to consider what must be done (ἀῑνοοί τί χρὴ ποιεῖν;) Xn. Α. 1, 3, 11.

MODES IN INDIRECT QUESTIONS

581. Indirect questions follow the rules for indirect discourse (§§ 673 ff.); after a secondary tense their verbs may be changed from the indicative or subjunctive to the optative of the same tense, or they may be retained in their original mode. For examples see § 673.

COMMANDS AND EXHORTATIONS

582. The modes used in expressing commands and exhortations are the imperative and the subjunctive. In the first person the subjunctive is used (since there is no imperative of the first person); in the other persons the imperative is commonly used (but see § 584).

Note. – ἄγε, ἴθι, φέρε, etc. – Commands and exhortations are often preceded by ἄγε (ἄγετε), εἰ δ’ ἄγε, ἴθι, φέρε, come now (often with δή or νυν), and sometimes by δεῖρο or δεῦτε (lit. hither): as ἄγε δὴ… εἶπέ come now, tell us Xn. A. 2, 2, 10. φἐρ’ ἴδω come, let me see Ar. Nub. 21. These words are often used without regard to the person and number of the accompanying imperative or subjunctive (as ἄγε μίμνετε come stay Β 331).

583. Commands. – A command is regularly expressed by the imperative mode: thus, ἐμοὶ πείθου καὶ σώθητι take my advice, and be saved PL. Crit. 44 b. θεοὶ δ’ ἡμῖν μάρτυρες ἔστων and let the gods be our witnesses Xn. Cy. 4, 6, 10. τοσαῦτά μοι εἰρήσθω let so much have been said by me Lys. 24, 4. (The perfect active or middle imperative is rare.)

Note 1.– In Greek, as in English, a polite command (or request) may be implied in a future statement: as πάντως δὲ τοῦτο δρᾱ́σεις at all events you will do this (i.e. “you will be kind enough to do this”) Ar. Nub. 1352. χωροῖς ἂν εἴσω you might go within (i.e. “go within”) S. ΕΙ. 1491.

Nore 2. – Infinitive in Commands. – A command may be suggested by the infinitive used independently (§ 644). A person addressed stands in the vocative case, but a predicate word referring to this voeative is in the nominative (cf. § 631); otherwise the subject is in the accusative (§ 629): as παῖδα δ’ ἐμοὶ λῦσαί τε φίλην, τά τ’ ἄποινα δέχεσθαι ἀζόμενοι Διὸς υἱόν but set my dear child free, and take this ransom, in holy fear of Zeus’ son A 20. γεωργοὺς ἀπιέναι Oyez, Oyes, Oyez! the husbandmen (are) to depart Ar. Pax. 551.

Note 3.– A command is sometimes expressed by ὅπως (negative ὅπως μή, § 431, 1) and the future indicative, or (less often) a subjunctive: thus, ὅπως οὖν ἔσεσθε ἄνδρες ἄξιοι τῆς ἐλευθερίας ἧς κέκτησθε prove yourselves men worthy of the freedom which you possess Xn. Α. 1. 7, 3. ὅπως μὴ φήσῃ τις (take care to) let no one say Xn. Symp. 4, 8.

584. Negative Commands (Prohibitions). – A negative command is expressed regularly by μή (§ 431, 1) with the present imperative or the aorist subjunctive (the present, as usual, referring to a continued action, while the aorist represents a single act, § 539): thus, (Pres. Impv.) μὴ οὖν οἴου now don’t entertain the idea Xn. A. 2, 1, 12. μὴ κτεῖνε Κροῖσον (stay) don’t kill Croesus (i.e. don't continue what you are now doing) Hat. 1, 85.

(Aor. Subj.) μὴ ποιήσῃς ταῦτα don’t do this Xn. A. 7, 1, 8. μηδενὶ τοῦτο παραστῇ let not this occur to the mind of anybody Lys. 12, 62.

Note.– The third person of the aovist imperative is occasionally found in prohibitions (e.g. μηδεὶς… προσδοκησάτω let nobody expect PL. Ap. 17 c); other exceptions to the rule of § 584 are very rare.

585. Exhortations. – Exhortations are expressed by the first person of the subjunctive mode; if negative, by the subjunctive with μή (§ 481, 1): thus, ἔωμεν let us go, φέρ᾽ ἴδω come, let me see Ar. Nub. 21. μή μέλλωμεν let us not delay Xn. Α. 3, 1, 46.

WISHES

586¹³⁵. Wishes are either hopeful or hopeless.

587¹³⁶. Hopeful Wishes. – A hopeful wish (future) stands in the optative mode, and may be introduced by εἴθε or εἰ γάρ: thus, τούτους μὲν οἱ θεοὶ ἀποτείσαιντο these may the gods repay Xn. A. 3, 2, 6. εἴθε σὺ… φίλος ἡμῖν γένοιο would that you might become a friend to us Xn. Hell. 4, 1, 38. So often ὄλοιτο curse him (lit. may he perish).

Note 1. – A wish (future) may be expressed in a roundabout way by βουλοίμην (ἐθέλοιμι) ἄν I could wish with an infinitive (cf. § 588,note): as βουλοίμην μὲν οὖν ἂν τοῦτο οὕτω γενέσθαι I could wish that this night so happen PL. Ap. 19 a.

Note 2. – A wish (future) may sometimes be implied in a question asked by the potential optative (§ 576): as πῶς ἂν ὁλοίμην how might I die (i.e. ῾Ι wish I might die’) E. Supp. 796.

Note 3. – The infinitive used independently (§ 644) may suggest a wish (the construction is rare in prose): as Ζεῦ πάτερ, ἢ Αἴαντα λαχεῖν ἢ Τυδέος υἱόν Father Zeus, may Ajax get the lot, or Tydeus» son! H 179. ὦ Ζεῦ, ἐκγενέσθαι µοι Αθηναίους τείσασθαι Grant me, Zeus, to take vengeance on the Athenians Hdt. 5, 105.

588¹³⁷. Hopeless Wishes. – A hopeless wish (present or past) is expressed either (1) by a past tense of the indicative with εἴθε or εἰ γάρ, or (2) by some form of ὤφελον (aorist indicative of ὀφείλω owe) with the present or aorist infinitive: thus, –

(1) εἴθε σοι, ὧ Περίκλεις, τότε συνεγενόµην I wish, Pericles, that I had been with you then Xn. Mem. 1, 2, 46. εἴθ» ἦν Ὀρέστης πλησίον would that Orestes were near! E. ΕΙ. 282.

(2) Ἀλλ᾽ ὤφελε μὲν Κῦρον ζῆν Would that Cyrus were alive! (lit. Cyrus ought to be alive) Xn. A. 2, 1, 4. Such wishes also may be preceded by εἴθε or εἰ γάρ: εἰ γὰρ ὤφελον, ὦ Κρίτων, οἷοί τ᾽ εἶναι οἱ πολλοὶ τὰ μέγιστα κακὰ ἐργάζεσθαι would that the common herd, Crito, were capable of doing the greatest harm Pl. Crit. 44 d.

Observe that the aorist in hopeless wishes refers to a single act (in past time), while the imperfect refers to a continued act (in present, seldom in past, time). Cf. § 606. The same principle applies to the present or aorist infinitive with ὤφελον. Cf. § 567.

Note. – A hopeless wish is sometimes expressed in a roundabout way by ἐβουλόμην (or ἤθελον) ἄν I could wish (cf. § 587 note 1): as ἐβουλόμην ἂν αὐτοὺς ἀληθὴ λέγειν I could wish that they spoke the truth Lys. 12, 22.

589. Negative Wishes. – All negative wishes take the negative μή (§ 431, 1). (This is true even with ὤφελον, where we should expect οὐ; cf. § 431 note): thus, ὡς δὴ μὴ ὄφελον νῑκᾶν would that Ι had not been victor λ 548. Zεῦ, μηκέτ’ εἴην may I no longer live, Ο Zeus E. Hipp. 1191.

Note. – With ὤφελον the negative μή probably belonged originally with the infinitive (§ 431, 1), but later came to precede the whole sentence (cf. § 431 note).

FINAL CLAUSES

PURPOSE

590¹³⁸. Purpose Clauses. – Purpose clauses regularly take the subjunctive after a primary tense and the optative (or subjunctive, § 674) after a secondary tense. They are introduced by ἵνα, ὡς, or ὅπως that, in order that, and if negative they add the negative μή (§ 431, 1): thus, Εἰς καιρὸν ἥκεις, ἔφη, ὅπως τῆς δίκης ἀκούσῃς “you have come in good time,” he said, “that you may hear the trial” Xn. Cy. 8, 1, 8. διανοεῖται αὐτὴν λῦσαι… ὡς μὴ διαβῆτε he has in mind to destroy it [the bridge] so that you may not cross Xn. A. 2, 4, 17.

λαβὼν ὑμᾶς ἐπορευόμην ἵνα… ὠφελοίην αὐτόν I proceeded with you in order to help him Xn. A. 1, 3, 4. τὴν δὲ Ἑλληνικὴν δύναμιν ἤθροιξεν ὡς μάλιστα ἐδύνατο ἐπικρυπτόμενος, ὅπ ως ὅτι ἀπαρασκευότατον λάβοι βασιλέα he collected the Greek force as secretly as possible, so as to take the King completely unprepared Xn. Α. 1, 1, 6.

ἃ… κατάκαυσὲν ἵνα μὴ Κῦρος δια βῇ which [vessels] he had burned, so that Cyrus should not cross Xn. A. 1, 4, 18.

Peculiarities in Purrose Clauses

Note 1. Optative by Attraction. – A purpose clause depending on an optative (potential or of wishing) commonly stands in the optative by attraction (§ 316): thus, βασιλεὺς ἡμᾶς ἀπολέσαι περὶ παντὸς ἃν ποιήσαιτο ἵνα καὶ τοῖς ἄλλοις Ἕλλησι φόβος εἴη the king would regard our destruction as all important, so that the rest of the Greeks may be afraid Xn. Α. 2, 4, 3.

Note 2. – ἃν – The adverb ἄν is sometimes used with ὡς or ὅπως and the subjunctive – probably a survival from the time when the purpose clause partook somewhat of the nature of a relative clause of anticipation (§ 623): thus, ὡς δ᾽ ἂν μάθῃς… ἀντάκουσον but in order that you may learn, listen to the other side of the case Xn. Α. 2, 5, 16.

Note 3. Future Indicative. – The future indicative with ὅπως is sometimes found in purpose clauses (cf. §§ 593 and 555).

Note 4. Unattained Purpose. – When a purpose clause depends on an expression which shows that the purpose was not attained, it takes a past tense of the indicative: thus, ἔδει τὰ ἐνέχυρα τότε λαβεῖν, ὡς μηδ» εἰ ἐβούλετο ἐδύνατο ἐξαπατᾶν security ought to have been taken at the time so that he would not have been able to play false, even if he had wished to do so Xn. A.7, 6, 23.

591. Relative Clause of Purpose. A relative clause with the future indicative may be used so as to express purpose (negative μή): as ἡγεμόνα αἰτεῖν Κῦρον ὄστις… ἀπάξει to demand of Cyrus a guide who will lead us back Xn. A. 1, 8, 14. κρύψω τόδ᾽ ἔγχος… ἔνθα μή τις ὄψεται Íll hide this sword where none shall see it S. Aj. 658.

592. Infinitive of Purpose. – Purpose may be expressed also by the infinitive (§ 640), but usually only with words which can take an indirect object (§ 375): as τὸ δὲ ἤμισυ κατέλιπε φυλάττειν τὸ στρατόπεδον the other half (of the army) he left to guard the camp Xn. A. 5, 2, 1. ταύτην τὴν χώρᾶν ἐπέτρεψε διαρπάσαι τοῖς Ἕλλησιν this country he turned over to the Greeks to plunder Xn. A. 1, 2, 19.

For purpose suggested by the infinitive with ὥστε see § 595, note. For the participle see § 653, 5.

593¹³⁹. Object Clauses. –

An object clause differs from a purpose clause in being in apposition with the object (or ubject) of a verb denoting care, attention, or effort.

Object clauses take the future indicative with ὅπως (rarely after a secondary tense the future optative, § 677); a negative clause adds the negative μή (§ 431, 1): as ὅπως δε καὶ ὑμεῖς ἐμὲ ἑπαινέσετε ἐμοὶ μελήσει it shall be my care that (lit. how that) you, in turn, shall commend me Xn. A. 1, 4, 16. τοῦτο δεῖ παρασκενάσασθαι, ὅπως ὡς κράτιστα μαχούμεθα this we must arrange, namely how we shall best fight Xn. A. 4, 6, 10. (Fur. Opt.; rare) διεπρᾶττοντο ὅπως ἐν τῇ ἑαυτῶν ἕκαστοι ἡγήσοιντο they arranged that they should be severally leaders in their own countries Xn. Hell. 7, 5, 3.

1. The (present or aorist) subjunctive or optative (§ 677) is sometimes found in object clauses instead of the future indicative (cf. § 555): thus, ὄρᾱ… ὅπως μὴ παρὰ δόξαν ὁμολογῆς see to it that you do not make any admission contrary to what you really think PL. Crit. 49 c. ἀπεκρίνατο ὅτι αὐτῷ µέλοι ὅπως καλῶς ἔχοι he replied that he was taking care that all should go well Xn. A. 1, 8, 13.

Note. – Instead of ὅπως μή, sometimes μή is found with the subjunctive after words like ὁρῶ and σκοπῶ see to it.

594. Clauses of Fearing. –

A fear that something may happen (in the future), depending on words of fearing and the like, is expressed by the subjunctive with μή after a primary tense and the optative (or subjunctive, § 674) with μή after a secondary tense. If negative, οὐ is added (§ 432): thus, δέδοικα… μὴ ἐπιλαθώμεθα τῆς οἴκαδε ὁδοῦ I fear we may forget the homeward way Xn. A. 3, 2, 25. οὗ τοῦτο δέδοικα μὴ οὐκ ἔχω ὅτι δῶ I am not afraid that 1 shall not have anything to give Xn. A. 1, 7.

ἔδεισαν οἱ Ἕλληνες μὴ προσάφοιεν πρὸς τὸ κέρας the Greeks were in terror lest they should lead against their flank Xn. A. 1, 10, 9.

ὑπερεφοβεῖτο μή οἱ ὀ πάππος ἀποθάνῃ he was more than afraid that his dear grandfather might die Xn. Cy. 1, 4, 2.

Note. – Rarely the future indicative is found after words of fearing; sometimes also ὅπως μή (instead of μή) with the future indicative or the subjunctive (cf. §§ 593 and 555).

1. A fear concerning the present or past stands in the indicative, with μή or μὴ οὐτ as φοβούμεθα μὴ ἀμφοτέρων ἅμα ἡμαρτήκαμεν we fear that we have failed of both at once Th. 3, 53. δείδω μὴ δὴ πάντα θεὰ νηµερτέα εἶπεν Ι fear that all the goddess said is true ε 300.

Note. – The construction after words of fearing (§ 594) is best explained as derived from the use of μή in questions (§ 572, 2) with the indicative or the anticipatory subjunctive (§ 576 a). Thus, originally δέδοικα᾽ μὴ ἔρχεται (or ἦλθεν); meant I am afraid; may he not possibly be coming (or have come) ?, and δέδοικα᾽ μὴ ἔλθῃ; meant I am afraid; may he not perhaps come? Later the second clause came to be regarded as dependent on the first.

As fears mostly concern the future rather than the present or past, the subjunctive is of course much more common than the indicative. The optative after a secondary tense is due to the influence of the principle of indirect discourse (§ 677).

RESULT

595. Clauses of result are regularly introduced by ὥστε so that (sometimes by ὡς or an equivalent relative). If the result is regarded purely as result (without stating its actual attainment), the infinitive mode is used (§ 645); if the attainment of the result is emphasized, the indicative mode (or some other form of independent sentence) is employed: thus, (Infinitive) τά οὕτως ἐστὶ δεινὸς λέγειν ὥστε σε πεῖσαι; who is so clever at speaking as to persuade you? Xn. A. 2, 5, 15. ἤλαυνεν ἐπὶ τοὺς Μένωνος, ὥστ᾽ ἐκεῖvous ἐκπεπλῆχθαι he advanced against Menon's soldiers so that they were panicstricken Xn. A. 1, 5, 13. ἐνετύγχανον τάφροις καὶ αὐλῶσιν ὕδατος πλήρεσιν, ὡς μὴ δύνασθαι διαβαίνειν they came upon ditches and conduits full of water, so that they were (lit. so as to be) unable to cross Xn. A. 2, 3, 10.

(Indicative) ἡ µήτηρ συνέπρᾶττεν αὐτῷ ταῦτα: ὥστε βασιλεὺς τὴν μὲν πρὸς ἑαυτὸν ἐπιβουλὴν οὐκ ᾖἠσθάνετο his mother codperated with him in this, so that the King was not aware of the plot against him Xn. A. 1, 1, 8.

(Potential Optative) πλοῖα ὃ ὑμῖν πάρεστιν ὥστε bmp ἂν βούλησθε ἐξαίφνης ἂν ἐπιπέσοιτε you have boats, 0 that you could make a sudden descent on any place you choose Xn. A. 5, 6,20. So also the imperative as well as other forms of statement, wish, question, etc., are occasionally found with ὥστε.

Note. – A result not yet attained, expressed by ὥστε and the infinitive, may sometimes come very near denoting purpose: as pyyaval πολλαί εἶσιν… ὥστε διαφεύγειν θάνατον there are many devices ευ as to escape (i.e. for escaping) death PL Ap. 39 a.

596. ἐφ᾽ᾧ, ἐφῷτε (and Gore). – A clause introduced by ἐφ'ᾧ, ἐφ᾽ῷτε (and sometimes ὥστε) on the ground that with the infinitive or (less often) the future indicative, regularly implies a proviso: as αἱρεθέντες δὲ ἐφ᾽ ᾧτε ξυγγράψεαι νόµους but having been chosen so that (“with the proviso that”) they should compile laws Xn. Hell. 2, 3, 11. ποιοῦνται κοινῇ ὁμολογίᾶν… ὥστε Ἀθηναίοις μὲν ἐξεῖναι βουλεῦσαι they made a general agreement, so that (i.e. “with the proviso that”) the Athenians should be allowed to consider measures Th. 3, 28.

597. Relative Clause Implying Result. – Result may also be implied by a relative clause with the indicative (§ 619, note): as τίς οὕτω μαίνεται ὅστις οὐ βούλεταίσοι φίλος εἶναι; who is so mad as not to (lit. who does not) wish to be a friend to you? Xn. A. 2, 5, 12.

CAUSAL CLAUSES

598¹⁴⁰. Causal clauses are introduced by ὅτε (διότε) because; less often by ἐπεί (ἐπειδή) or ὅτε when, since (cf. the Latin cum), ὡς as, since, or by a relative pronoun (§ 619, note).

The mode of the verb in a causal clause is regularly the indicative (although a potential form of statement is sometimes possible): as ἐπεὶ ᾔσθετο… καὶ ὅτι… ἤκουε since he had learned, and because he heard Xn. A. 1, 2, 21.

Cause may also be implied by a circumstantial participle (see § 653, 4, and § 656, 1).

Note. – After a secondary tense causal clauses are subject to the principles of indirect discourse, and may have the optative (§ 677).

1. εἰ after words of wondering, etc. – After words expressing surprise, joy, sorrow, anger, and the like, a cause is sometimes more delicately put as a mere supposition: as οὐ θαυμαστὸν δ᾽ εἰ τότε τᾱ̀ς μορίᾶς ἐξέκοπτον it's not wonderful that (lit. if) at that time they destroyed the sacred olive trees Lys. 7. 7.

CONDITIONS

599. 1. In Greek, as in other languages, a simple condition (in which nothing is implied as to the fulfillment) stands in the indicative mode (§ 602).

2. A condition in which something is implied as to the fulfillment (i.e. as not likely to take place, not taking place, or not having taken place) has in Greek, as in other languages, a special conditional form. See Future Less Vivid (§ 605) and Contrary to Fact Conditions (§ 606).

3. In addition to the conditional forms common to other languages, Greek has also a special form of future condition (§ 604), and in present and past time a special form for general conditions (§ 608).

CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

600¹⁴¹. A conditional sentence consists regularly of two parts: the Protasis (or Conditidn), which states the condition, and the Apodosis (or Conclusion), which states what happens (or would happen) under that condition.

1. The protasis is introduced by some word meaning or implying if (εἰ, ἐάν, or a relative, § 620); the regular negative of the protasis is μή (§ 431, 1).

(For εἰ after words of wondering, etc., see § 598, 1.)

Note. – If οὗ is used in the protasis, it usually modifies some particular word of the protasis (cf. § 431, 3): thus, εἰ τοὺς θανόντας οὐκ ἐᾷς θάπτειν if you don't allow (i.e. forbid) the burial of the dead S. Aj. 1131.

601. In classifying conditional sentences, it is convenient to refer them to certain normal forms which repeatedly oceur, but the Greek did not hesitate to employ that form of protasis or apodosis which should best express his meaning (see § 612).

Note. – Apodotic δέ – Originally the two parts of a conditional sentence were cogrdinate, and could be connected by coirdinate conjunctions (like δὲ and ἀλλά). Traces of this earlier usage still appear sometimes in the use of δέ (rarely ἀλλά) in the apodosis, as if to connect it with the protasis: thus, ἐᾱ́ν τ᾿ αὖ λέγω ὅτι καὶ τυγχάνει µέγιστον ἀγαθὸν ὃν ἀνθρώπῳ τοῦτο…, ταῦτα 8 ἔτι ἧττον πείσεσθε if, on the other hand, I say that this happens to be the greatest good for a man, then you will even less believe this PL. Ap. 38 a.

602. Simple Conditions. – In Greek, as in other languages, a simple condition (in which nothing is implied as to the fulfillment) takes the indicative mode in both protasis and apodosis: thus, εἰ δέ τις οἴεται ἕνα αἱρετὸν εἶναι ὀφθαλμὸν βασιλεῖ, οὐκ ὀρθῶς οἴεται but if anybody thinks that one chosen man is Eye for the King, he doesn’t think rightly Xn. Cy. 8, 2, 11. εἰ μὲν θεοῦ ἣν, οὐκ ἣν… αἰσχροκερδής if he was a god's son, he was not basely greedy of gain Pl. Rep. 408 c. εἰ τιµωρήσεις Πατρόκλῳ… τὸν φόνον καὶ Ἕκτορα ἀποκτενεῖς, αὐτὸς ἀποθανῇ if you avenge the murder of Patroclus, and slay Hector, you yourself shall die Pl. Ap. 28 c.

1. Protasis and apodosis need not be in the same tense: thus, εἰ . . . ἔλῦε τὰς σπονδὰς, τὴν δίκην ἔχει if he broke the truce, he has his deserts Xn. A. 2, 5, 41.

Note: 1. – Equivalents of the Indicative in Simple Conditions. – Equivalents of the indicative may be substituted for it in the apodosis (and rarely in the protasis). Thus, the optative of wishing (= ἐλπίζω Ι hope, § 587), the imperative (= κελεύω I command, § 582), the subjunctive of exhortation (= δεῖ or χρή it is necessary or proper), or even the potential optative or indicative (= ἐμοὶ δοκεῖ it seems to me) (§§ 563, 565) may stand for the indicative: as σοὶ δ᾽ εἴ πῃ ἄλλῃ δέδοκται, λέγε καὶ δίδασκε but if you have come to any different conclusion, (I beg you) speak and explain PL. Crit. 49 e. καὶ εἴτε μηδεμίᾱ αἴσθησίς ἐστιν… θαυµάσιον κέρδος ἂν εἴη ὁ θάνατος and if it is unconsciousness, (it seems to me) death would be a wondrous gain PL. Ap. 40 c.

Note 2.– Future Indicative in Present Conditions. – Rarely the future indicative is used in the protasis with the force of a periphrastic future (see § 533 note) to express a present intention. Such conditions are better classed as present conditions: thus, εἰ δὴ ὁμοῦ πόλεµός τε δα μᾷ καὶ λοιμὸς Ἀχαιούς if war and plague together are to lay the Achaeans low A 61. Sο εἰ… πιστεύσομεν if we are going to trust Xn. A.1 ,3, 16.

FUTURE CONDITIONS (MORE VIVID AND LESS VIVID)

603. In future conditions the Greeks usually preferred not to assume the condition as a fact (§ 602), but to anticipate it as a more or less remote possibility (cf. §§ 555, 558); hence we find two special forms of future conditions, the Future More Vivid and the Future Less Vivid.

604¹⁴². Future More Vivid. – A Future More Vivid Condition, anticipating an immediate future possibility, has:

In the protasis – the subjunctive with ἐάν (ἤν or ἄν).

In the apodosis – the future indicative (or its equivalent):

thus, ἣν γὰρ τοῦτο λάβωμεν, οὐ δυνήσονται μένειν for if we capture this, they will not be able to stay Xn. A. 3, 4, 41. ἐὰν σωφρονῆτε, οὗ τούτου ἀλλ᾽ ὑμῶν αὐτῶν φείσεσθε if you are discreet, you will spare not him, but yourselves Xn. Hell. 2, 3, 34.

Note. – Equivalents of the future indicative, such as the imperative, hortatory subjunctive, subjunctive with οὗ μή (§ 569, 2), and the like (cf. § 602, note 1) may fake the place of the future indicative in the apodosis: as καὶ χρῶ αὐτοῖς éav δέῃ τι and use them, if you need them at all Xn. Cy. 5, 4, 30. κ῎ᾱν φαινώμεθα ἄδικα αὐτὰ ἐργαζόμενοι, μὴ οὗ δέῃ, κτλ., and if we shall appear to do this unjustly, will it not perhaps be necessary, etc., PL. Crit. 48 d.

605¹⁴³. Future Less Vivid. – A Future Less Vivid condition, implying that the supposition is a somewhat remote possibility, has:

In the protasis,

the optative with εἰ.

In the apodosis,

the potential optative (i.e. optative with ἄν, § 563):

thus, ὁδοποιήσειέ γ᾽ ἂν αὐτοῖς καὶ εἰ σὺν τεθρίπποις βούλοιντο ἀπιέναι he would make roads for them even if they should want to depart with chariot-and-four Xn. A. 3, 2, 24. ἐφ᾽ ὃν ἔλθοιτε ἄν, εἰ τὸν Ἅλυν διαβαῖτε to which [i.e. the Parthenius] you would come, if you should cross the Halys Xn. A. 5, 6, 9.

Note. – Observe that the less vivid condition of future time corresponds to the contrary to fact condition of present or past time.

CONDITIONS CONTRARY TO FACT

606¹⁴⁴. In a condition contrary to fact the supposition stated in the protasis is contrary to the existing facts. Such conditions have:

In the protasis,

a past tense of the indicative with εἰ.

In the apodosis,

the potential indicative (§ 565) (i.e. a past tense of the indicative with ἄν), or its equivalent (§ 566).

The aorist in these conditions denotes a single act, and hence refers regularly to past time; the imperfect denotes a continued action (or state), and refers either to present or to past time; the pluperfect is used only when the completion and continuance of the result of the act (§ 534) are emphasized, and refers usually to present time. Protasis and apodosis need not stand in the same tense: thus,

Aorist (Past Time) οὐκ ἂν ἐποίησεν Ἀγασίᾱς ταῦτα, εἰ μὴ ἐγὼ αὐτὸν ἐκέλευσα Agasias would not have done this, if I had not told him to Xn. A. 6, 6, 15. καὶ ἴσως ἂν διὰ ταῦτ’ ἀπέθανον, εἰ μὴ ἡ ἀρχὴ διὰ ταχέων κατελύθη and perhaps I should have been put to death for this, if the government had not soon been overthrown Pl. Ap. 32 d. (Anorist (ἂν… εἶπες) of a single act in present time (rare) is in PL Rep. 337 b.)

Imperfect (Present Time) ταῦτα δὲ οὐκ ἂν ἐδύναντο ποιεῖν, εἰ μὴ καὶ dairy μετρίᾷ ἐχρῶντο they would not have the power to do this, if they did not also lead a temperate life Xn. Cy. 1, 9, 10.

(Past Time) οὐκ ἂν οὖν νήσων… ἐκράτει, εἰ μή τι καὶ ναυτικὸν εἶχεν now he would not have been master of islands, if he had not possessed also some naval force Th. 1, 9.

Pluperfect (Present Time) with aorist (past time) εἰ τριᾱ́κοντα µόναι µετέπεσον τῶν ψήφων, ἀπεπεφεύψφη ἄν if only thirty of the votes had been cast on the other side, ι should (now) be free Pl. Ap. 36 a.

Aorist (Past) and imperfect (Present) εἰ μὴ ὑμεῖς ἤλθετε, ἐπορενόμεθα ἂν ἐπὶ βασιλέᾱ if you had not come we should (now) be marching against the king Xn. A. 2, 1, 4.

Imperfect (Past) and Aorist (Past) εἰ μὲν πρόσθεν ἠπιστάμην, οὐδ» ἂν συνηκολούθησά σοι if I had understood this before, I should not have followed with you Xn. A. 7, 7, 11.

607. In place of the potential indicative in the apodosis of a condition contrary to fact may be substituted a statement of fact expressed by the imperfect indicative (without ἄν) of a verb denoting possibility, propriety, necessity, and the like (ἐξῆν, ἔδει, χρῆν, etc.). See § 567 and note: thus,

With Aorist Infinitive (Past Time) ἐξῆν σοι φυγῆς τιμήσασθαι, εἰ ἐβούλου it was possible for you to propose the penalty of exile, if you so desired PL. Crit. 52 c.

With Present Infinitive (Present Time) χρῆν σ᾿ εἴπερ ἦσθα μὴ κακὸς, πείσαντά µε γαμεῖν γάμον τόνδ" you ought, if you were not so base, to win my sanction to contract this marriage E. Med. 586.

With Present Infinitive (Past Time) ἐχρῆν γὰρ αὐτοὺς, εἴπερ ὑμῶν ἕνεκα ἔπρᾶττον ταῦτα, φαίνεσθαι τῆς αὐτῆς τιμῆς πολλὰς ἡμέρᾶς πωλοῦντας for, if they were doing this on your account, they ought to have been observed to sell at the same price for many days Lys. 22, 12.

GENERAL CONDITIONS

608. In present and past time the Greeks had a special form for a general condition (to state what always happens (or happened) if the condition is (or was) ever fulfilled).

609¹⁴⁵. Present General. – In a Present General condition the usage is:

In the protasis – the subjunctive with ἐάν (ἤν or ἄν).

In the apodosis – the present indicative (or the equivalent):

thus, ἣν δ᾽ ἐγγὺς ἔλθῃ θάνατος, οὐδείς βούλεται θνῄσκειν if Death comes near, nobody wants to die E. Alc. 671. τᾱ̀ς δὲ ὠτίδας, ἄν τις ταχὺ ἀνιστῇ, ἔστι λαμβάνειν it is possible to catch bustards if one starts them up suddenly Xn. Α. 1, 5, 3.

Note 1. – In place of the present indicative in the apodosis may be substituted the gnomic aorist (§ 530). See § 530 and the second example there quoted.

Note 2. – Observe that the present general condition differs from the future more vivid (§ 604) only in the apodosis, which states what always takes place (instead of what will take place), in case the antici pation expressed in the protasis is realized.

610¹⁴⁶. Past General. – In a Past General condition the usage is:

In the protasis – the optative with εἰ.

In the apodosis – the imperfect indicative (or the equivalent):

thus, εἴ πού τι ὀρφη βρωτόν, διεδίδου if he saw anywhere anything eatable, he distributed it Xn. A. 4, 5, 8. εἴ τι ἄλλο πρᾱ́ττειν βούλοιντο, κῡ́ριοι ἦσαν if (ever) they wished to do anything else, they had authority Lys. 12, 44

Note 1. – As an equivalent of the imperfect indicative in the apodosis, the imperfect or aorist indicative with ἄν (§ 568), or the aorist modified by “never,” “often,” and the like may be used: as εἰ δέ τινος τοῦ κλήρου ὀ ποταμός τι παρέλοιτο, ἐλθὼν ἂν πρὸς αὐτὸν ἐσήμαινε τὸ γεγενηµένον if (ever) the river carried away any portion of a man's lot, he would come before him [the king] and relate that had happened Hdt. 2,109. For an example of the aorist with ἂν as the apodosis of a past general condition, see § 568. For the aorist with a negative see Xn. 4. 1, 9, 18.

Note 2. Observe that the past general condition differs from the future less vivid (§ 605) only in the apodosis, which states what regularly took place (instead of what would take place), in case the possibility suggested in the protasis came true.

SUMMARY OF CONDITIONAL FORMS

611. The normal usage in conditions may be summarized as follows:

VARIATIONS FROM THE NORMAL FORMS OF CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

612. Besides the combinations given above, other combinations are not infrequent. The most common are:

1. Protasis Simple (§ 602) or More Vivid (§ 604) with Apodosis Less Vivid (§ 605). – ἀδικοίην μὲν ἂν εἰ μὴ ἀποδώσω unjustly should I act if I do not restore her E. Hel. 1010. οὐδὲ γὰρ ἂν πολλαὶ γέφῡραι ὦσιν, ἔχοιμεν ἂν ὅποι φυγόντες ἡμεῖς σωθῶμεν, for not even if there be many bridges, should we have anywhere to escape and save ourselves Xn. A. 2, 4, 19.

2. Protasis Less Vivid (§ 605) with Apodosis Simple (§ 602). – τοῦτό γέ µοι δοκεῖ καλὸν εἶναι, εἴ τις οἶός τ» εἴη παιδεύειν ἀνθρώπους this certainly seems to me to be a fine thing, if anybody should be able to educate men Pl. Ap. 19 e. τί τῷ πλήθει περιγενήσεται εἰ ποιήσαιµεν ἃ ἐκεῖνοι προστάττουσιν; what advantage will result for the people, if we should do what they insist on? Lys. 34, 6.

Note. – Potential Optative or Indicative in Protasis. – Rarely a potential optative or indicative is used in a protasis, retaining, of course, its regular force: as εἴ γε μηδὲ δοῦλον ἀκρατῆ δεξαίμεθ’ ἄν if we would not take even a slave who is intemperate Xn. Mem. 1, 5, 3.

613. The protasis sometimes depends remotely on an idea contained in the apodosis, in which case it is best translated “in case that” or “on the chance that”: as ὄρᾱ δὲ δὴ τῆς σκέψεως τὴν ἀρχήν, ἐᾱ́ν σοι ἱκανῶς λέγηται now consider the beginning of our investigation, in case it be stated to your satisfaction Pl. Crit. 48 e.

614. Implied Conditions. – A condition may be implied in a participle (§ 653, 6), adverb, or adverbial phrase, or a relative clause (§§ 621; 622): as σὺν ὑμῖν μὲν ἂν οἶμαι εἶναι τῑ́μιος... ὑμῶν δὲ ἔρημος ὤν οὐκ ἂν ἱκανὸς εἶναι οἶμαι οὔτ» ἂν φίλον ὠφελῆσαι oir’ ἂν ἐχθρὸν ἀλέξασθαι with you (i.e. εἰ σὺν ὑμῖν εἴην if Ι should be with you) I think I should be honored (i.e. εἴην ἄν), but deprived of you (i.e. εἰ ὑμῶν ἔρημος εἴην) I think Ι should not be able (i.e. εἴην ἄν) either to help a friend or to defend myself against a foe Xn. 1, 3, 6.

615. Verb not Expressed. – The verb in the protasis or apodosis sometimes is not expressed if it can be readily felt from the context: as εἴ τις καὶ ἄλλος ἀνήρ, καὶ Κῦρος ἄξιός ἐστι θαυμάξεσθαι if any other man is worthy to be admired, Cyrus, too, is worthy to be admired Xn. Cy. 5, 1, 6. εἰ δή τῳ σοφώτερός του φαίην εἶναι, τούτῳ ἄν if I should say that T am wiser than anybody in any respect, it would (I should say) be in this respect Pl. Ap. 29 b.

616. From the regular suppression of the verb of the apodosis have arisen the following idiomatic expressions:

1. εἰ μή if not, i.e. except: as οὗ γὰρ δὴ... ὁρῶμεν εἰ μὴ ὀλίγους τούτους ἀνθρώπους for we do mot see any one except (lit. if not) these few men Xn. A. 4, 7, 5.

2. εἰ μὴ διά if not on account of, i.e. except for: as ἀπολέσαι παρεσκευάξοντο τὴν πόλιν, εἰ μὴ δι ἄνδρας ἀγαθούς they were making ready to destroy the State (and they would have destroyed it) if it had not been for some good men Lys. 12, 60.

3. εἰ δὲ μή but if not, i.e. otherwise (a supposition contrary to what immediately precedes): as ἀπῄτει τὰ… χρήματα’ εἰ δὲ μή, πολεμήσειν ἔφη αὐτοῖς he demanded restoration of the property; otherwise (lit. but if they should not vestore it) he said he should make war on them Xn. Hell. 1, 3, 3. So also εἰ δὲ μὴ is used even when the preceding clause is negative: as μὴ ποιήσῃς ταῦτα’ εἰ δὲ μή,… αἰτίᾱν ἕξεις don't do this; otherwise (i.e. if you persist in doing it) you will be blamed Xn. A. 7, 1, 8. So also εἰ δὲ μή is regularly used where ἐὰν δὲ μή (owing to a preceding ἐᾱ́ν) would be more logical.

4. ὥσπερ ἂν εἰ just as would be if, i.e. like as: thus, ἠσπάζετό τε αὐτὸν ὥσπερ ἂν εἴ τις πάλαι συντεθραµμένος… ἀσπάζοιτο he greeted him just as one would greet another if he should greet him after being long associated with him Xn. Cy. 1, 3, 2.

CONCESSIVE CLAUSES

617. Concessive clauses are introduced by εἰ καί (ἐᾱ́ν καί) if even or καὶ εἰ (καὶ ἐᾱ́ν, and by crasis § 43 κἄν) even if; otherwise they do not differ from conditional clauses: as ἱκανοί εἶσι… τοὺς μικροὺς κἂν ἐν δεινοῖς ὦσι, σφζειν εὖπετῶς they (the gods) are able easily to save lowly men, even if (i.e. although) they are in great straits Xn. A. 3, 2, 10.

Concession may also be implied by the circumstantial participle (§ 653, 7).

RELATIVE (AND TEMPORAL) CLAUSES

618¹⁴⁷. Relative clauses are introduced by relative pronouns (substantive and adjective) and relative adverbs.

Note. – ἔως means both “while,” “so long as,” and “all the while till” i. e. until: as ἕωσπερ ἐμπνέω... οὗ μὴ παύσομαι so long as I live and breathe, I shall not stop Pl. Ap. 29 d. μέχρι γὰρ τούτου νομίζω χρῆναι κατηγορεῖν, ἕως ἂν θανάτου δόξῃ τῷ φεύγοντι ἄξια εἰργάσθαι for so far do I think one should continue his impeachment, until it shall appear that acts deserving death have been committed by the defendant Lys. 12, 37.

1. Negative Relative Clauses. – A relative clause that states a fact, if negative, takes the negative οὐ (§ 431, 1): other relative clauses (of anticipation, purpose, etc.) take the negative μή (§ 431, 1).

RELATIVE CLAUSES WITH DEFINITE

ANTECEDENT

619. A relative clause whose relative refers to a definite antecedent may have any of the constructions of an independent sentence (statement, question, wish, command, §§ 562–589).

Note. – Such clauses containing a statement in the indicative may imply cause (§ 598) or result (§ 597); if negative, they have οὐ.

620. Relative clauses in which the relative refers to an indefinite antecedent take the same modes as the protases of conditional sentences (§§ 602–610). If negative, they have always μή (§ 431, 1).

621. A relative clause containing the indicative may sometimes imply the protasis of a simple condition (negative μή): as ἃ μὴ οἶδα οὐδὲ οἴομαι εἰδέναι what (ever) I don't know I don’t even think that I know Pl. Αp. 21 d. οἳ μὴ ἔτυχον ἐν ταῖς τάξεσιν ὄντες, εἰς τὰς τάξεις ἔθεον those who did not happen to be in line ran to their lines Xn. A. 2, 2, 14.

Note. – More commonly such clauses are conceived as general in nature, and so take the subjunctive or the optative according to § 625.

622. Rarely a relative clause containing a past tense of the indicative is so used as to imply the protasis of a condition contrary to fact (§ 606): as καὶ ὁπότερα τούτων ἐποίησεν, οὐδενὺς ἂν τον Ἀβηναίων πλούσιο, ἧσαν and whichever of these he did (i.e. assuming that he had done one of them, § 553, 1) they [the children] would have been as rich as any one of the Athenians Lys. 32, 23.

623¹⁴⁸. A relative clause which merely anticipates a future event or a future possibility has the subjunctive with ἄν (cf. the future more vivid condition, § 604): thus, ὅ τι ἂν δέῃ πείσοµαι I will endure whatever may be necessary Xn. A.1, 8, 5. τῷ ἀνδρὶ ὃν ἂν ἕλησθε πείσοµαι I will obey whatever man you shall elect Xn. A. 1. 3, 15. ἐπειδὰν δὲ διαπράξωµαι ἃ δέοµαι, ἥξω as soon as I shall have accomplished my purpose I shall return Xn. A. 2, 3, 29. περιμένετε ἔστ» ἂν ἐγὼ ἔλθω wait till Ι come Xn. A. 5, 1, 4.

624. A relative clause which anticipates a more remote future possibility has the optative (cf. the future less vivid condition, § 605): thus, ὀκνοίην μὲν ἂν εἰς τὰ πλοῖα ἐμβαίνειν ἃ ἡμῖν δοίη I should hesitate to go on board the vessels which he might give us Xn. A. 1, 3, 17. ἀλλ᾽ ὃν πόλις στήσεις, τοῦδε χρὴ κλύειν but whomsoe’er the State might set in station óer us, him we must obey S. Ant. 666.

625¹⁴⁹. Relative clauses which suggest a general or repeated possibility have the subjunctive with ἄν when dependent on a present (or future) tense, and the optative when dependent on a past tense (cf. the general conditions §§ 609–610): thus,

Present General. – ἔως μὲν ἂν παρῇ τις, χρῶμαι as long as any one is present, I avail myself of his services Xn. A. 1, 4, 8. ὅς κε θεοῖς ἐπιπείθηται, μάλα τ’ ἔκλυον (§ 530) αὐτοῦ whosoever obeys the gods, him they most do hear A 218.

Past General. – σφοδρὸς [ἣν Χαιρεφῶν] ἐφ᾽ ὅτι ὁρμήσειε Chaerephon was very enthus,iastic in whatever he undertook Pl. Ap. 21 a. ἐθήρευεν ἀπὸ ἵππου ὁπότε γυμνάσαι βούλοιτο ἑαυτόν τε καὶ τοὺς ἵππους he hunted on horseback whenever he wanted to exercise himself and lis horses Xn. Α. 1, 2, 7. περιεµένομεν οὖν ἑκάστοτε ἕως ἀνοιχθείη τὸ δεσµωτήριον’… ἐπειδὴ δὲ ἀνοιχθείη, εἰσῆμεν so we waited each time until the prison should be opened ; and when (ever) it was opened we went in Pl. Phaed. 59 d.

Note. – ὅ τι μή and ὅσον μή. – ὅ τι μή and ὅσον μή are used elliptically, like εἰ μή (§ 616, 1), in the meaning except: as οὗ παρεγένοντο ὅ τι μή ὀλίγοι they were not present, with the exception of a few (lit. what was not the few who were present) Th. 4, 94.

626¹⁵⁰. Temporal Clauses with Words Meaning “until”. – Temporal clauses introduced by words meaning “until” are sometimes used so as to imply purpose (cf. § 624 and § 625 last example). The suggestion of purpose makes no difference in the mode of the verb, which is regularly the subjunctive with ἄν in connection with a primary tense, and the optative in connection with a secondary tense (§§ 624; 625).

Note. – Rarely, for the sake of vividness (cf. § 674) the subjunctive is used in a temporal clause after a secondary tense: as ἕως ὃ ἂν ταῦτα διαπράξωνται φυλακὴν… κατέλιπε he left a garrison until they [the people] should carry out these measures Xn. Hell. 5, 3, 25.

627¹⁵¹. πρίν. – The temporal conjunction πρίν (in origin a comparative adverb from the root of πρό before) meaning sooner than, before (until) is used with the indicative (619), subjunctive (§§ 623; 625), and optative (§ 624) in the same way as other relative adverbs of time, but usually only after a negative sentence; after an affirmative sentence, πρίν is commonly used with the infinitive (§ 645): thus,

(Indicative) οὔτε τότε… ἰέναι ἤθελε πρὶν ἡ γυνὴ αὐτὸν ἔπεισε and he was not then willing to go until his wife persuaded him Xn. A. 1, 2, 26.

(Subjunctive) δεῖται αὐτοῦ μὴ πρόσθεν καταλῦσαι… πρὶν ἂν αὐτῷ συμβουλεύσηται he desires him not to come to terms before (i.e. until) he shall advise with him Xn. A. 1, 1, 10.

(Optative) ἐδέοντο μὴ ἀπελθεῖν πρὶν ἀπαγάφοι τὸ στράτευμα they wanted him not to go away before (i.e. until) he should lead back the army Xn. A. 7, 7, 57.

(Infinitive) διέβησαν πρὶν τοὺς ἄλλους ἀποκρίνασθαι they crossed before the rest replied Xn. A. 1, 4, 16.

Note. – The adverbs πρόσθεν or πρότερον are sometimes used in the principal clause as forerunners of πρίν (see the second example in § 627). Both πρὶν ἤ and πρότερον ἤ sooner than are sometimes used like πρίν.

628. The infinitive is a verbal substantive (originally a dative or a locative case). It retains its verbal character, however, in so far that it has voice and tense, is modified by adverbs (not by adjectives), and takes its object in the same case as a finite verb.

SUBJECT OF THE INFINITIVE

629. Subject Accusative. – The subject of the infinitive, if expressed, is always in the accusative case (§ 342 and note). A predicate substantive or adjective belonging to the subject then agrees with it in case: as τοὺς φυγάδας ἐκέλευσε σὺν αὐτῷ στρατεύεσθαι he bade the exiles take the field with him Xn. A. 1, 2, 2. ὃν ᾤετο πιστόν οἱ εἶναι whom he thought to be faithful to himself Xn. A. 1, 9, 29. νομίζω γὰρ buds ἐμοὶ εἶναι καὶ πατρίδα καὶ φίλους καὶ συμμάχους for I think you are to me both country, friends, and allies Xn. A. 1, 3, 6.

Note. – So also predicate words referring to an indefinite subject (not expressed) stand in the accusative case: as ἂ ἔξεστιν ἀριθμήσαντας… εἰδέναι things which it is possible (for people) to know by counting Xn. Mem. 1, 1, 9.

630. Subject not Expressed. – if the subject of the infinitive is expressed or indicated in connection with the word (or words) on which the infinitive depends, it is not expressed again with the infinitive; as ἔφη ἐθέλειν he said he was willing (but in latin dixit se velle) Xn. A. 4, 1, 27. νομίζει ὑπ» ἐμοῦ ἠδικῆσθαι he thinks he has been wronged by me Xn. Α. 1, 3, 10.

Note. – Exceptions to the rule of § 630 are comparatively rare, but if the subject is again expressed with the infinitive, it of course stands in the accusative (§ 629).

631. Agreement of Predicate Words. – When the subject of the infinitive is expressed or indicated not with the infinitive, but in connection with the word on which the infinitive depends (§ 630), a predicate substantive or adjective commonly stands in the same case with the subject as expressed: thus,

(Nominative) Πέρσης μὲν ἔφη εἶναι he said that he was a Persian Xn. A. 4, 4, 17. τοῦτο δ’ ἐποίει ἐκ τοῦ χαλεπὸς εἶναι he accomplished this by being severe Xn. A. 2, 6, 9.

(Genitive) τῶν φασκόντων δικαστῶν εἶναι of those who say that they are judges Pl. Ap. 41 a. Κύρου ἐδέοντο ὡς προθύμοτάτου πρὸς τὸν πόλεµον γενέσθαι they begged Cyrus to become as zealous as possible toward the war Xn. Hell. 1, 5, 2. i

(Dative) ἔδοξε τοῖς στρατηγοῖς βουλεύσασθαι συλλεγεῖσιν it seemed best to the generals to meet together and consider Xn. A. 4, 8, 9.

(Accusative) πάντας οὕτω διατιθεὶς ἀπεπέμπετο ὥστε αὐτῷ μᾶλλον φίλους εἶναι ἢ βασιλεῖ he sent them all back, so disposing them that they were more friendly to himself than to the King Xn. A. 1, 1, 5.

1. Sometimes, however, the influence of the infinitive causes a predicate noun referring to a genitive or dative (rarely a nominative) to stand in the accusative (cf. § 316): as Ἀθηναίων ἐδεήθησαν σφίσι βοηθοὺς γενέσθαι they wanted the Athenians to come to their assistance Hdt. 6, 100. Ξενίᾷ… ἥκειν παραγγέλλει λαβόντα τοὺς ἄλλους he sent instructions to Xenias to take the rest of the men, and come Xn. A. 1, 2, 1.

USES OF THE INFINITIVE

632. The infinitive has two distinct uses: (1) as a substantive (not in indirect discourse), and (2) in indirect discourse.

Note. – The use of the infinitive (with subject accusative) was developed from its substantive use, thus, ἀγγέλλω Κῦρον νῑκᾶν originally meant I report Cyrus in regard to being victorious, which amounts to saying Ι report that Cyrus is victorious, and (Κῦρον) νῑκᾶν is felt to represent (Κῦρος) νϊκᾷ, the present indicative (cf. § 342, note).

633. Negative with the Infinitive. – The infinitive used as a substantive has regularly as its negative μή (§ 431,1); the infinitive in indirect discourse retains the negative of the direct discourse (usually οὐ, § 431, 2).

634. Personal and Impersonal Construction. – In Greek, as in English, both the personal and the impersonal constructions are found with words of saying and the like. Thus, the Greeks said both Κῦρος λέγεται ἀναβῆναι Cyrus is said to have gone up, and λέγεται Κῦρον ἀναβῆναι it is said that Cyrus went up, but the tendency was to employ the personal construction more freely than in English. Hence some of the Greek personal constructions (especially with δῆλος evident, δίκαιος just, and the like) have to be rendered in English as impersonal: thus, δῆλος ἦν άναβῆναι it was evident that he was distressed (lit. he was evident) Xn. A. 1, 2, 11.

THE INFINITIVE AS A SUBSTANTIVE

635. The use of the infinitive soon extended far beyond its original bounds (as a dative or locative case) and it was felt that the infinitive could stand in any case (nominative, genitive, dative, or accusative), but unless it is modified by the article (§ 636) it is often impossible to say definitely in what case the infinitive stands.

636¹⁵². Articular Infinitive. – The infinitive may be modified by the neuter of the definite article τό, τοῦ, τῷ (§ 444); when so modified, its substantive character appears even more clearly.

637. Infinitive as Subject. – The infinitive (with or without the article) may stand as the subject of a verb (or as a predicate substantive): as κόσμος καλῶς τοῦτο δρᾶν fo perform this as it should be done is a credit Th. 1, 5. τὸ γάρ τοι θάνατον δεδιέναι… οὐδὲν ἄλλο ἐστὶν ἡ δοκεῖν σοφὸν εἶναι μὴ ὄντα for to fear death is nothing else than to seem to be wise when one is not PL Ap. 29 a.

If the infinitive is the subject of a finite verb, it is of course in the nominative case; if it is the subject of an infinitive, it is of course in the accusative case.

1. Infinitive as (Apparent) Subject. – With many impersonal verbs and similar expressions, such as δεῖ or χρή it is necessary, δοκεῖ it seems best, ἔστε it is possible, ἔξεστι it is allowed, πρέπει or προσήκει it is fitting, καλόν ἐστι it is a fine thing, δίκαιον it is right, and the like, the infinitive stands in the relation of subject or quasi-subject (cf. § 305, note): as ὧδε οὖν χρὴ ποιεῖν thus, then we must act Xn. A. 2, 2, 4. τί δεῖ αὐτὸν αἰτεῖν; why must he make demand? Xn. A. 2, 1, 10. ἔξεστων ὁρᾶν it is possible to see Xn. A. 3, 4, 39. ἔδοξεν οὖν αὐτοῖς… προϊέναι so it seemed best to them to proceed Xn. A. 2, 1, 2. δίκαιον γὰρ ἀπόλλυσθαι τοὺς ἐπιορκοῦντας for it is right for perjurers to perish Xn. A. 2, 5, 41. For the personal construction, instead of the impersonal, in examples like the last see § 634.

Here belongs also the infinitive in indirect discourse (§ 646) with passive verbs of saying and thinking, like λέγεται, νοµίζεται, ete. (cf. § 634).

638. Infinitive as Object or Cognate Accusative. – The infinitive with or without the article is used with great frequency as an object (§ 329) or cognate accusative (§ 331). When used as a cognate accusative it is often called the Complementary Infinitive. Examples are: ἤθελον αὐτοῦ ἀκούειν they were willing to listen to him Xn. A. 2, 6, 11. οὗ δυνάµενοι καθεύδειν not being able to sleep Xn. A. 3, 1, 8. οὐκ εἶχον ἱκανὰς [χιμαίρᾱς] εὑρεῖν they had not (the power) to find enough [goats] Xn. A. 3, 2, 12. μανθάνουσιν ἄρχειν τε καὶ ἄρχεσθαι they learn to govern and to be governed Xn. A. 1, 9, 4. ηὕχοντο αὐτὸν εὐτυχῆσαι they prayed for him to have good luck Xn. A. 1, 4, 17. τοὺς μὲν ὁπλῑ́τας αὐτοῦ ἐκέλευσε μεῖναι he bade the hoplites remain on the spot Xn. A. 1, 5, 13. οὐκ ἐκώλὑε βασιλεὺς τὸ Κῡ́ρου στράτευμα διαβαίνειν the King did not hinder Cyrus’ army from crossing Xn. A. 1, 7, 19. διεπρᾱ́ξατο πέντε μὲν στρατηγοὺς ἰέναι he managed to have five generals go Xn. A. 2, 5, 30.

Here belongs also the infinitive in indirect discourse after verbs of saying and thinking (§ 669). For the infinitive with verbs of promising and the like see § 549, 2.

(With the Article) φοβούμενοι οὐχ ἡμᾶς µόνον, ἀλλὰ καὶ τὸ καταπεσεῖν in fear not only of us, but also of falling off Xn. A. 3, 2, 19.

(With Prepositions) πρὸς τὸ µετρίων δεῖσθαι πεπαιδευµένος trained to having only moderate wants Xn. Mem. 1, 2, 1.

639. Infinitive in the Genitive Case. – The infinitive (usually with the article) may stand in the genitive case: as οἱ δὲ ζῶντες αἴτιοι θανεῖν the living are the cause of his death S. Ant. 1173.

(With the Article) τοῦ πιεῖν ἐπθῡμίᾱ the desire to drink Th. 7, 84. ἀμελήσας τοῦ συλλέγειν πλοῖα having neglected to collect vessels Xn. A. 5, 1, 15. ἄρξαντες τοῦ διαβαίνειν taking the lead in crossing Xn. A. 1, 4, 15.

(With a Preposition) ἀντὶ τοῦ τοῖς πλείοσι πείθεσθαι instead of obeying the majority Xn. Hell. 2, 3, 34.

Note. – For the infinitive with τοῦ expressing purpose (mostly in Thucydides) see § 352, 1, note.

640. Infinitive in the Dative Case. – The infinitive (with or without the article) is often found in the dative case: as τὸ δὲ ἀσφαλὲς καὶ μένειν… καὶ ἀπελθεῖν αἱ νῇες παρέξουσι security both for staying and for going away, our ships will provide Th. 6, 18. Here doubtless are to be classed the infinitive expressing purpose (see § 592) and the infinitive with most adjectives and substantives (see § 641).

(With the Article) Μένων ἠγάλλετο τῷ ἐξαπατᾶν δύνασθαι Menon rejoiced in being able to deceive Xn. A. 2, 6, 26.

(With a Preposition) ἐν γὰρ τῷ κρατεῖν ἐστι καὶ τὸ λαμβάνειν τὰ τῶν ἡττόνων in being victorious is included also the right to take the property of the vanquished Xn. Α. 5, 6, 32.

641. Infinitive with Adjectives and Substantives. – Adjectives (adverbs) and substantives, denoting ability, fitness, power, sufficiency, and the like, and their opposites, may be followed by the infinitive: as δυνατὴν καὶ ὑποξυγίοις πορεύεσθαι ὁδόν a road practicable even for pack animals to travel Xn. A. 4, 1, 24. ὁπόσοι ἱκανοὶ ἦσαν τὰς ἀκροπόλεις φυλάττειν as many as were sufficient to guard the citadels Xn. A. 1, 2, 1. δεινὸς λέγειν clever at speaking Pl. Ap. 17 b. χαλεπὰ εὑρεῖν hard to find Pl. Rep. 412 b. οἷοί τε ἔσεσθε ἡμῖν συμπρᾶξαι you will be able to coöperate with us Xn. A. 5, 4, 9.

ὥρᾶ ἀπιέναι it's time to go away Pl. Ap. 42 a. ἀνάηκη ἐστὶ μάχεσθαι it is necessary to fight Xn. A. 4, 6, 10. ὄκνος ἣν ἀνίστασθαι there was a disinclination to get up Xn. A. 4, 4, 11. θαῦμα ἰδέσθαι a wonder to behold θ 366.

Note. – As in English, the active infinitive is commonly used with adjectives and substantives, even though the meaning may be passive: as ἄξιος θαυμάσαι worth admiring, worthy to be admired Th. 1, 138. CL. in English “a house to let.”

642. Adverbial Use of the Infinitive. – The infinitive (with or without the article) may be used adverbially, like the dative of Respect (§ 390), or the Adverbial Accusative (§ 336): as τὸ δὲ βίᾷ πολϊτῶν δρᾶν ἔφῡν ἀμήχανος but as for acting in defiance of the State, I am too weak for that S. Ant. 79. ὡς… σχολὴ ᾖ ἡμῖν τὸ κατὰ τοῦτον εἶναι that we may have freedom so far as this man is concerned Xn. A. 1, 6, 9.

1. With the article τό the adverbial infinitive is most frequently found after words denoting hindrance and the like (§ 643); without the article it is most frequently found in certain set phrases (often preceded by ὡς): ὡς εἰπεῖν or ὡς ἔπος εἰπεῖν as one might say, (ὡς) συνελόντε εἰπεῖν (§ 382, last example) to speak concisely, (ὡς) ἐμοὶ δοκεῖν as it seems to me, ἑκὼν εἶναι willingly (lit. in respect to being willing), ὀλίγου δεῖν or pikpod δεῖν almost (lit. in regard to lacking little).

Note. – The infinitive δεῖν is often omitted from ὀλίγου δεῖν and μϊκροῦ δεῖν, leaving ὀλίγου or μῑκροῦ alone to mean almost: as ὀλίγου ἐμαυτοῦ ἐπελαθόμην Ι almost forgot who I was PL. Ap. 17 a.

643. Construction after Words of Hindering. – Words meaning (or suggesting) hinder may be followed by either (1) the simple infinitive (§ 638), or (2) the infinitive with τοῦ (§ 639), or (3) the simple infinitive with μή (§ 434) or (4) the infinitive with τοῦ μή (§ 434), or (5) the infinitive with τὸ μή (§ 642, 1 and § 434). Thus, he hinders me from speaking may be expressed in Greek by (1) κωλῡ́ει με λέγειν, (2) κωλῡ́ει με τοῦ λέγειν, (3) κωλῡ́ει µε μὴ λέγειν, (4) κωλῡ́ει µε τοῦ μὴ λέγειν, (5) κωλῡ́ει µε τὸ μὴ λέγειν.

Ιf the word of hindering is itself modified by a negative (see § 435), we may have also (6) οὐ κωλῡ́ει µε μὴ οὐ λέγειν, and (7) οὐ κωλῡ́ει µε τὸ μὴ οὐ λέγειν. For other examples see §§ 434–5.

644. Infinitive of Suggestion. – The infinitive may be used independently to suggest an action, but without stating it as a fact. An infinitive so used may suggest a wish (see § 587 note 3), or command (see § 583 note), or it may be used as an exclamation (usually with the article): as τῆς μωρίᾱς᾿ τὸ Δία νοµίζειν Stupidity! to think of having a belief in Zeus! Ar. Nub. 819.

Note. – Some of the so-called independent infinitives, it can be seen, were earlier dependent on words like δός grant (that) or ἔδοξε it was voted (that) and the like.

OTHER USES OF THE SUBSTANTIVE INFINITIVE

645. The infinitive is used with ὥστε (sometimes with ὡς), ἐφ᾽ ᾧ, ἐφ᾽ ᾧτε, to denote result (see §§ 595; 596), and with πρίν meaning before (see § 627).

Note.– The infinitive, with or without ὥστε or ὡς (§ 595) is sometimes used with ἤ after a comparative (§ 426, note 5): as νόσημα μᾶῖζον ἤ φέρειν a disease too great to bear S. Ο.Τ. 1293. ἑλάττω ἔχοντα δύναμιν ἢ ὥστε τοὺς φίλους ὠφελεῖν having a force too small to (lit. smaller than so as to) help his friends Xn. Hell. 4, 8, 23.

THE INFINITIVE IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE

646. When the infinitive is used in indirect discourse, each tense represents the same tense (of the indicative or optative) of the direct discourse (the present including also the imperfect, and the perfect the pluperfect; see §§ 551 and 671). If ἄν was used in the direct discourse, it is retained in the indirect (§ 439): thus, ἔφη ἐθέλειν he said he was willing (i.e. ἐθέλω Ι am willing) Xn. A. 4, 1, 27. ᾿ῑᾶσθαι αὐτὸς τὸ τραῦμά φησι he says that he himself treated the wound (i.e. ἰώμην I treated) Xn. A. 1, 8, 26. οἰόμεθα ἂν καὶ τῇ ἀρετῇ χρῆσθαι we think we could make some use also of our valor (i.e. χρῴμεθα ἄν we could use) Xn. A. 2, 1, 12. λέγεται οἰκοδομῆσαι he is said to have built (i.e. ᾠκοδόμησε he built) Xn. Α. 1, 2, 9. For additional examples see §§ 551 and 671.

647. Infinitive with ἄν. – The infinitive with ἄν usually represents in indirect discourse a potential optative or indicative of the direct discourse (§646), but the infinitive used as a substantive may sometimes take ἄν to give it a potential meaning (cf. § 436): as παντάπασιν ἀπεστερηκέναι… μὴ ἂν ἔτι σφᾶς ἀποτειχίσαι tο have deprived them completely of any possible power of walling them in Th. 7, 6.

648. The participle is a verbal adjective (§ 159, 1), and follows the same principles of agreement as other adjec- tives (§§ 420–423).

649. The uses of the participle may be classed under three heads: Attributive, Circumstantial, and Supplementary, but these uses shade off into one another, and the same participle may sometimes be referred to two classes. Thus, in μαχόμενοι διετέλεσαν they continued fighting, μαχόμενοι is supplementary to διετέλεσαν, but it also denotes the circumstances under which they continued.

A. THE ATTRIBUTIVE PARTICIPLE

650. The participle is used to modify a substantive exactly like any other adjective (§ 419): thus, πόλις οἰκουμένη an inhabited city, ὁ παρὼν καιρός the present occasion, ὁ μὴ δαρεὶς ἄνθρωπος (§ 431, 1) the unflogged man.

1. The substantive which a participle modifies may be omitted, and the participle alone then has the value of a substantive (cf. § 424): thus, οἱ παρόντες the persons present, τὸ μέλλον the future (lit. the thing about to be), τὸ θαρσοῦν courage (lit. the thing not afraid) Th. 1. 36. τῶν ἐργασομένων ἐνόντων since there were in the country those who would cultivate it Xn. A. 2, 4, 22. ἔπλει… ἐπὶ πολλὰς ναῦς κεκτηµένους he sailed against men possessed of many ships Xn. Hell. 5, 1, 19.

Note 1. – A participle, like any other adjective (§ 424), used substantively, may sometimes be modified by a genitive, if its verbal force is no longer felt: as βασιλέως προσῄκοντές τινες some relatives of the king Th. 1, 128.

Note 2.– Greek uses the participle much more freely than English does, and the attributive participle must often be rendered in English by a substantive or a relative clause: as οἱ πεπεισμένοι (lit. the persuaded persons) those who have been persuaded or the converts, οἱ ἐνοικοῦντες the inhabitants Xn. A. 1, 5, 5. ὁ τὴν γνώµην ταύτην εἰπών the man who advanced this opinion Th. 8, 68. τὰ δέοντα the duties, etc.

651. Participle as a Predicate Adjective. – The participle, like any other adjective, may stand in the predicate with a copula (§ 307): as οὔτε γὰρ θρασὺς οὔτ» οὖν προδείσᾶς εἰμί for I am neither bold nor timorous S. Ο.Τ. 90. Many other examples are to be seen in the mass of periphrastic forms in the perfect system (§§ 226; 227; 221, 1; 230; 536).

B. THE CIRCUMSTANTIAL PARTICIPLE

652. The participle may serve to define the circumstances under which an action takes place: as πρὸς δὲ βασιλέα πέµπων ἡξίου sending to the king he demanded Xn. A. 1, 1, 8. συλλέξᾶς στράτευμα ἐπολιόρκει Μπίλητον collecting an army he besieged Miletus Xn. A. 1, 1, 7. ἀκούσᾶσι τοῖς στρατηγοῖς ταῦτα ἔδοξε τὸ στράτευμα συναγαγεῖν when the generals heard this, they decided to marshal their forces Xn. A. 4, 4, 19.

653. In Greek circumstantial participles are many times as frequent as in English, and very often they cannot be properly translated by a corresponding English participle; usually they are best rendered by an English clause or phrase expressing time, means, manner, cause, purpose, condition, concession, or merely an attendant circumstance, as best accords with the Greek context: thus,

1. Τime – ἀκούσ ἂς ταῦτα ἔλεξεν when he had heard this, he said Xn. A. 1, 7, 6. ἔτι παῖς ὤν while still a boy Xn. Α. 1, 9, 9 (see also § 655).

2. Means. – λῃξόμενοι ζῶσι they live by plundering Xn. Cy. 3, 2, 25.

3. Manner. – παρήλαυνον τεταγμένοι they marched by in order Xn. A.1, 2, 16. (Cf. also § 655, 1.)

4. Cause.– ἡ µήτηρ ὑπῆρχε τῷ Kῡ́ρῳ φιλοῦσα αὐτὸν μᾶλλον ἢ τὸν βασιλεύοντα Ἀρταξέρξην Cyrus’ mother took his side, because she loved him more than she did the king Artazerzes Xn. A. 1, 1, 4. ἡξίου ἀδελφὸς dv αὐτοῦ he demanded on the ground that he was his brother Xn. A. 1, 1, 8. (Cf. also § 655, 1 and § 656, 1.)

5. Purpose. – To express purpose the future participle is regularlygused, but the present is sometimes found (cf. § 524): thus, πέμψαι δὲ καὶ προκαταληψεομένους τὰ ἄκρα to send men to occupy the heights in advance Xn. A. 1, 3, 14. ἀνῑ́σταντο oἳ μὲν… λέξοντες ἃ ἐγίγνωσκον, oἳ δὲ… ἐπιδεικνύντες οἴᾱ εἴη ἡ ἀπορίᾷ some arose to tell what they thought, and others (with the purpose of) pointing out what the difficulty was Xn. A. 1, 3, 13. ( Cf. also § 656, 3.)

6. Condition. – o0d¢ χρήματα μὲν λαμβάνων διαλέγοµαι, μὴ λαμβάνων δ᾿οὔ moreover, I do not converse on condition of receiving money, and refrain from conversation if I receive none Pl. Ap. 33 a.

Observe that if a participle implying a condition is negatived, μή is always used (§ 431, 1).

7. Concession (“although”). – μέσον τῶν ἑαυτοῦ ἔχων τοῦ Κῡ́ρου εὐωνύμου ἔξω ἦν although he commanded the center of his own forces, he was beyond Cyrus’ left wing Xn. Α. 1, 8, 13. οὐδὲν ὑπ’ ἐμοῦ ἀδικούμενος… κακῶς ἐποίεις τὴν ἐμὴν χώρᾱν although you were in nowise wronged by me, you did damage to my land Xn. A. 1, 6, 7. (Cf. also § 655, 1 and § 656, 2.)

8. Any Attendant Circumstance. – συλλέξᾱς στράτευμα ἐπολιόρκει Μίλητον having collected an army he laid siege to Miletus Xn. A. 1, 1, 7. Such participles are often best rendered in English by a codrdinate verb: as καταπηδήσᾶς ἀπὸ τοῦ ἅρματος τὸν θώρᾶκα ἐνέδυ he leapt down from lis chariot, and put on his breastplate Xn. A. 1, 8, 3.

Note 1.– It is important to remember that these relations (of time, manner, etc, § 653, 1–8) are not expressed by the participle, EY al mor lly ish oot TEN fl aia ea Ar rendered in English in several different ways. Thus, ἐπολέμει ἐκ Χερρονήσον ὁρμώμενος (he waged war, using the Chersonese as a base of operations Xn. Α. 1, 1, 9), taken by itself, might be rendered he waged war while using the Chersonese, etc. (time, § 653, 1) or he waged war by using the Chersonese, etc. (means, § 633, 2) or he waged war, thus, using, etc. (manner, § 653, 3) or he was enabled to wage war because he used, etc. (cause, § 633, 4), or he waged war with the idea of using, etc. (purpose, § 653, 5), or he did wage war, if he used, etc. (condition, § 653, 6), or he waged war although he used, etc. (concession, § 653, 7), or he waged war with the Chersonese as a base of operations (attendant circumstance, § 633, 8); but in every case that form of English translation should be chosen which best suits the Greek context.

Note 2. – Some idiomatic uses of the circumstantial participle are often best rendered by a different idiom in English. Thus, ἀρχόμενος (lit. beginning) is often best rendered at first, in the beginning, τελευτῶν (lit. ending) finally, ἔχων (lit. holding on) persistently, ἀνύσᾶς (lit. having completed) quickly, θαρρῶν boldly, λαθών (lit. escaping notice) secretly, χαίρων (lit. rejoicing) with impunity, κλαίων (lit. weeping) to one’s sorrow, φθάσᾱς (lit. anticipating) before. (Many of these are to be explained as adjectives used with adverbial force, § 425): thus, ὅπερ ἀρχόμενος ἐγὼ ἔλεγον as I said in the beginning PL Ap.24 a. ἄνοιγ» ἀνύσᾶς make haste and open Av. Nub. 181.

Note 3.– Participles like ἔχων having, ἄγων leading, φέρων carrying, χρώμενος using may often be rendered “with”: as ἔχων ὁπλίτᾶς χῑλίους with a thousand hoplites Xn. A.1, 2, 9. ποίᾷ δυνάμει συμμάχῳ χρησάμενοι with what force as allies Xn. A. 2, 5, 13.

Note 4. – The phrases τί (ὅ τι) παθών (lit. having experienced what?), and τί (ὄ τί) μαθών (lit. having learned what?), are best translated “what possessed you to…” (πάσχω) or “what put it in your head to ” (μανθάνω), or loosely “why in the world”: as τί παθόντε λελάσμεθα what has possessed us to forget? A 313.

ADVERBS WITH THE CIRCUMSTANTIAL PARTICIPLE

654. The relations of time, manner, cause, etc., often implied in the circumstantial participle (§ 653), may be made clearer (1) by means of adverbs modifying the principal verb, or (2) they may be definitely stated by means of adverbs modifying the participle itself.

655. Adverbs Modifying the Principal Verb. – The adverbs εὐθύς straightway, αὐτίκα immediately, ἅμα at the same time, τότε (ἐνταῦθα) then, ἤδη already, εἶτα then, ἔπειτα thereupon, and a few others, modifying the principal verb, often serve to make clearer a temporal relation implied in the participle. Cf. § 653, 1. (The first four are often more closely connected in sense with the participle than with the principal verb): thus, τῷ δεξιῷ κέρᾷ τῶν Ἀθηναίων εὐθὺς ἀποβεβηκότι… ἐπέκειντο they attacked the right wing of the Athenians as soon as it was disem barked (lit. when the right wing was disembarked, they straightway attacked it) Th. 4, 43. ἐμάχοντο ἅμα πορευό µενοι they fought and marched at the same time Xn. A. 6, 3, 5. πολλαχοῦ δή pe ἐπέσχε λέγοντα μεταξύ it often checked me in the very act of speaking Pl. Ap. 40 b. ἐκελευσεν αὐτὸν συνδιαβάντα ἔπειτα οὕτως ἀπαλλάττεσθαι he advised Jim to cross with the rest, and then withdraw Xn. A. 7, 1, 4.

1. In like manner ὅμως nevertheless, οὕτως Thus, εἶτα, or ἔπειτα, with the principal verb, may help a participle implying concession (§ 653, 7), οὕτως may help a participle implying manner (§ 658, 3), and οὕτως or διὰ ταῦτα (τοῦτο) may help a participle implying cause (§ 653, 4): as ἄπειροι ὄντες αὐτῶν… ὅμως ἑτολμήσατε… ἰέναι εἰς αὐτούς although you knew nothing about them, yet yow dared to go against them Xn. A. 3, 2, 16. νοµίζων ἀμείνους καὶ κρείττους πολλῶν βαρβάρων ὑμᾶς εἶναι, διὰ τοῦτο προσέλαβον because I thought you better and braver than many barbarians (for this reason) I enlisted you Xn. A. 1,7, 3.

656¹⁵³. Adverbs Modifying the Participle. – The following adverbs modify the participle itself:

1. The adverb dre (also οἷον, οἷα) inasmuch as (§ 441 a) gives the participle a causal meaning: thus, ὁ δὲ Κῦρος dre παῖς ὢν… ἤδετο τῇ στολῇ and Cyrus, inasmuch as he was a child, was pleased with the equipment Xn. Cy. 1, 3, 3. ἅτε θεωµένων τῶν ἑταίρων inasmuch as their companions were looking on Xn. A. 4, 8, 28.

2. Καίπερ although (sometimes also καί or καὶ ταῦτα, § 312 note) gives the participle a concessive meaning: thus, καὶ τότε προσεκύνησαν καίπερ εἰδότες ὅτι ἐπὶ θάνατον ἄγοιτο even then they did homage to him, although they knew that he was being led to death Xn. A. 1, 6, 10.

3. Ὡς shows that the participle states the reasons of somebody else without implicating the speaker or writer.

(The context sometimes shows that the reason is only pretended): thus, Πρόξενον… ἐκέλευσε… παραγενέσθαι, ὡς εἰς Πῖσιδας βουλόμενος στρατεύεσθαι, ὡς πρᾱ́γματα παρεχόντων τῶν Πῖσιδῶν τῇ ἑαυτοῦ χώρᾷ he bade Prozenus join him, on the (pretended) ground that he wished to undertake an expedition against the Pisidians, since the Pisidians (as he said) were causing trouble for his territory Xn. A. 1, 1, 11. ταύτην τὴν χώρᾶν ἐπέτρεψε διαρπάσαι τοῖς Ἕλλησιν ὡς πολεμίἂν οὖσαν this country he turned over to the Greeks to plunder since (in his opinion) it was hostile Xn. A. 1, 2, 19. συλλαμβάνει Κῦρον ὡς ἀποκτενῶν he arrested Cyrus with the (avowed) intention of putting him to death Xn. A. 1, 1, 3.

Note. – ὤσπερ as, just as, with the participle (as elsewhere) merely denotés comparison: as κατακείµεθα ὥσπερ ἐξὸν ἡσυχίδν ἄγειν we lie inactive as though it were possible to take οur ease Xn. A. 3, 1, 14. ὥσπερ πάλιν τὸν στόλον Κύρου ποιονµένον as if Cyrus were moving backwards on his expedition Xn. Α. 1, 3, 16. Cf. ὥσπερ ὀργῇ ἐκέλευσε he ordered, just as if in anger Xn. A. 1, 5, 8.

GENITIVE AND ACCUSATIVE ABSOLUTE

657. Genitive Absolute. – A substantive (noun or pronoun) and modifying participle having no grammatical connection with the rest of the sentence stand in the Genitive Absolute (§ 369): as ἀνέβη ἐπὶ τὰ ὄρη οὐδενὸς κωλῡ́οντος he went up on the mountains, no one hindering Xn. A. 1, 2, 22. σπεισαµένου Κῡ́ρου ἐπίστευε μηδὲν ἂν παρὰ τὰς σπονδὰς παθεῖν when Cyrus made a treaty [an enemy] was confident that he should experience nothing contrary to its terms Xn. A. 1, 9, 8.