Formation of Words

268. Words are formed in two ways: (1) by Derivation and (2) by Composition.

1. Derived words are formed by means of suffixes (which are not themselves separate words) either from roots or from the stems of other words. Thus, δύση right (from the root δικ-), δίκα-ιος just (from the stem δικᾶ-) are derived words.

2. Compound words are formed by combining two or more words or stems of words into one. Thus, ίππό-δαμος horse-tamer, μεγά-θῦμος great-hearted, are compound words. Of course derived words may be formed from stems of compound words. Thus, οἰκοδομῶ (-έω) build a house, from οἰκο-δόμος house-builder, is a derived word.

269. Primitive and Denominative Words. – A Primitive Word is formed directly from a root by means of a suffix; a Denominative Word is formed from the stem of a noun. Thus, ζυγ-ό-ν yoke is a primitive word, being formed from the root ζυγ– by means of the suffix –o-. From the stem of ζυγόν (ζυγο-) is formed the denominative verb ζυγῶ (-όω) yoke, join together.

Note. – Less correctly the term Primitive Word is sometimes applied to a word formed by means of a suffix from the theme of a verb.

270. Roots. – The root of a word, like the perfume of a flower, has no separate, tangible existence. It merely uggests the meaning of a word or group of words. Only when united with inflectional endings (and usually a suffix as well) does it receive definite form and meaning, and become a full-blown word.

Note. – Roots consist usually of only one syllable. From roots stems are formed by means of suffixes, and from stems words are formed by means of inflectional endings. (Very few words are formed directly from roots without any suffix.) Thus:

271. Word-Groups. – The same root often appears in many different words which are formed from it in various ways. Such words are commonly said to form a Word-Group.

Thus, from the root γραφ– are derived (directly or indirectly)

From the root οἰκ– are derived (directly or indirectly)

These examples are enough to show the importance, for a ready understanding of Greek, of a thorough knowledge of derivation.

272. Changes of Roots in Derivation. – In the formation of words from roots, Greek has a very clear method of differentiation by means of the vowel variation (ο, ς, (α)), spoken of in § 14: thus, λέγ-ω speak, λόγ-ος speech; λεύπ-ω leave, λοιπ-ός left; σπεύδ-ω hasten, σπουδ-ή haste.

See below, §§ 277, 1–3 and 280, 1.

273. Changes of Stems in Derivation. – When suffixes are added to stems the usual euphonic changes take place; – that is, vowels thus, brought together usually contract, and consonants, and consonants and vowels, undergo the changes described in §§ 25–39. Examples are:

ἀρχαῖος old (for *ἀρχα–ῖο-ς), βασιλείᾱ kingdom (for *βασιλεν–ιᾶ, § 21), ἀλήθεια truth (for *ἀληθεσ-ια, § 37), ὄμμα eye (for *ὀπ-μα, § 27,1), ὄψις look, vision (for *ὀπ-σις, § 28), δικαστής judge (for *δικαδ-της, § 26), ἐλπίζω hope (for *ἐλπιδ-ιω, § 39, 2).

274. A noun stem may vary its final vowel before the suffix, or, before a suffix beginning with a vowel, may drop it altogether (cf. § 44,3): thus, οἰκέ-της house-slave, from οἶκος (stem οἰκο-) house; οὐράν-ιος heavenly, from οὐρανός (stem οὐρανο-) heaven.

Note. – Before a suffix beginning with a consonant the end vowel of a stem usually, but not always, has its long form (§ 13): thus, ποίη-σις α making, ποιῶ (-έω) make.

275. Formation by Analogy. – In Greek, as in other languages, many words were formed by analogy. Thus, ίππεύ-ω be a horseman is formed from ίππεύ-ς horseman; but since ἵππ– is common to more words (ἵππ-ος, ίππ-ικός, etc.) than is ίππεύ-, the letters –εύω came to be felt as a sort, of suffix, which formed ίππεύω from ίππ-, and so could be used to form other denominative verbs from various stems: thus, δουλ-εύω be a slave (δοῦλο-ς slave), βουλ-εύω plan (βουλή plan), παιδ-εύω educate (παῖς, παιδ-ός child).

In the formation of verbs analogy plays a great part, and the important verb endings of this sort are given in § 292.

So also sometimes in the formation of nouns, endings such as –αιος and –ειος, for -α-ιο-ς and –-ε-ιο-ς, formed by adding the suffix –ιo– to a stem ending in α– or ε– (ευ-, εσ-) (see § 287, 5, "Αθηναῖος, οἰκεῖος, βασιλεῖος), are used in similar fashion: thus, σκοτ-αῖος (σκότος) dark, ἀνδρ-εῖος (ἀνήρ, ἀνδρ-ός) brave (for examples of such formations see §§ 283, 1; 284, 1; 287, 5).

FORMATION OF SUBSTANTIVES

276. A very few substantives are formed from roots without any suffix: thus, φλόξ (φλογ-) flame (φλέγ-ω burn).

277. The following are the most important suffixes in the formation of substantives:

1. –o-. Masculine in –ός (agent) and –ος, neuter in –ον.

(Roots with the vowel variation ο, ε (α) (§ 14), usually show ο.)

2. –ᾱ-. Nominative in –ᾱ or –η; all feminine.

(Roots with the vowel variation ο, ε (α) (§ 14), regularly show ο.)

3. –εσ-. Nominative in –ος (§ 106, 1): neuter.

(Roots with the vowel variation ο, ε (α) (§ 14), regularly show ε.)

278. AGENT

1. –ευ-. Nominative in –εύς: masculine.

2. –τηρ-. Nominative in –τήρ: masculine.

3. –τορ-. Nominative in –τωρ: masculine.

279. ACTION

1. –τι-. Nominative in -τις: feminine.

πίσ-τι-ς faith (πείθω (ποιθ-, πειθ, πιθ-) persuade, § 26)

2. –σι– (weakened from –τι-). Nominative in-σις: feminine.

3. –σιᾱ-. Nominative in –σιᾶ: feminine.

280. RESULT OF ACTION

1. –ματ-. Nominative in –μα: neuter. A great many substantives are formed from verb stems by

this suffix.

(Roots with the vowel variation ο, ε (α) (§ 14), regularly have ε.)

2. –μο-. Nominative in – μός: masculine.

3. –μᾱ-. Nominative in –μη: feminine.

281. MEANS OR INSTRUMENT

1. –τρο-. Nominative in –τρον: neuter (cf. Latin claustru-m).

282. QUALITY (ABSTRACT SUBSTANTIVES)

1. –ιᾱ-. Nominative in –ίᾱ: feminine (cf. Latin memor-ia).

This suffix (cf. § 287, 5) is the one most frequently employed to form abstract substantives.

2. –ια-. Nominative in –ια: feminine (mostly from adjectives in –ης).

This suffix forms also a few concrete feminines corresponding to masculines: thus,

3. –τητ-. Nominative in –της: feminine (cf. Latin veritās, –tāt-is).

4. –συνᾱ-. Nominative in –σύνη: feminine.

283. DIMINUTIVES

(Often used as pet names.)

1. -ιο (-ιδ–ιο-, –αρ-ιο-, § 275). Nominative in –ιον: neuter.

2. –ισκο-, –ισκᾱ-. Nominative in –ίσκος (masc.) or –ίσκη (fem.).

284. PLACE (OR MEANS)

1. –ιο-. From substantives in –τηρ (§ 278, 2, mostly obsolete) and –εύς (§ 278, 1). Nominative in –τήριον and –εῖον (for *-ευ–ιον, § 21): neuter.

So, by analogy (see § 275),

2. –ων-. Nominative in –ών: masculine (place only).

285. PATRONYMICS (descendant of)

286. GENTILE OR PLACE NAMES

FORMATION OF ADJECTIVES

287. The following are the most important suffixes forming adjectives:

1. –υ-. Nominative in ύς, εῖα, –ύ (§123) (from roots only).

2. –εσ-. Nominative in –ής, –ές (§ 120) (mostly compounds).

3. –μον-. Nominative in –μων, –μον (§ 120).

μνή- μων mindful (cf. μι-μνῄσκω remind)

4. –ο-. Nominative in –ος, –ᾱ (-η), –ον (§ 117).

λοιπ-ό-ς remaining (cf. λείπ-ω (λοιπ-, λειπ-, λιπ) leave)

5. ιο-. Nominative in –ίος, –ίᾱ, –ιον (sometimes ιος, –ιον, § 119). This is the most common adjective-suffix.

So, by analogy (see § 275),

6. –ικο– (-κο-). Nominative in -κός, –κή, –κόν. Next to –ιο-, this is the most frequent adjective-suffix.

7. –vo-. Nominative in –νός, –νή, –νόν.

8. –po– (-ερο-, –υρο-). Nominative in –ρός, –ρᾱ́, –ρόν.

9. –λο– (-ελο-, –αλεο-). Nominative in-λος, λη, –λον (-αλέος, –αλέᾱ, –αλέον).

288. MATERIAL OR SOURCE

1. –ο– (for –ια-, the same as –ιο– in § 287, 5).

χρῡσοῦς golden, for χρῡ́σε–ος, χρῡ́σε-ιο–ς (Homer), from χρῡσό–ς gold.

2. –ινο-. Nominative in –ινος, ίνη, –ινον (cf. § 287, 7).

289. FULLNESS OR ABUNDANCE

1. –εντ– (for earlier –ϝεντ-). Nominative in –εις, –εσσα, –εν (mostly poetic).

FORMATION OF ADVERBS

290. Beside the adverbs regularly formed from adjectives (§ 187) and from pronominal stems (§ 187, 1), and the nouns used adverbially (§ 187, 1), adverbs are formed also by means of certain endings approaching the nature of suffixes (cf. § 137, 2). Of these the more important are:

1. –δόν.

2. –δην.

3. –τε.

4. -ᾱκις.

Note. – Some adverbs end also in –ᾱ– thus, μάλα very, τάχα quickly.

FORMATION OF VERBS

291. Primitive verbs (such as φη-μί or λέγ-ω say) are formed directly from roots (§ 165), while denominative verbs are formed from the stems of nouns.

292⁸⁸. The Suffix -ι-ο/ε-. – The suffix by which nearly all denominative verbs were originally formed is -ι-ο/ε- (or more properly -Ι-ο/ε-), but between vowels the ι disappeared (§ 21), and with consonants it combined to form other letters (§ 39). Thus, arose several classes of denominative verbs, their form depending on the form of the noun from which they were derived, then by analogy (§ 275) the endings of these verbs were used to form other similar verbs from various noun stems. The most important of these classes (as seen in the present indicative) are given below:

1. (-ό-ω). From stems in –o– By analogy (§ 275) –όω.

293. Desideratives. – Verbs expressing a desire to do something are usually formed by the ending –σειω: thus, γελα-σείω desire to laugh (γελῶ (-άω) laugh).

Formation or Compound Worps

294. Compound words are formed by combining two or more separate words, or stems of words, into one word.

Their accent is usually recessive (§ 64): thus, μακρό-βιος (μακρό-ς + βίος) long-lived, προ–βουλή (πρό + βουλή) forethought.

1. The compound word thus, formed often follows the inflection of its last part, as in the examples above, or it may go over into a different form of inflection: thus, φιλό-τῑμος (τιμή) honor-loving, εὐ-γενής (γένος) well-born, θεο-φιλής (φίλος) dear to the gods, πολυ-πράγμων (πρᾶγμα, πρᾱ́γματ-ος) greatly active, meddlesome, εὔ-φρων (φρήν) glad-hearted.

295. When the first part of a compound word is an inflected word, only its stem is used: thus, λογο-γράφος (λόγο-ς) speech-writer, πείθ-αρχος (πείθ–ω) obedient to command.

1. A final short vowel (α or ο) is elided if the second part began with a vowel (but see § 2a): thus, χορ-ηγός (χορό-ς) chorus-leader (but θεο-ειδής (θεος+ϝεἶδος, § 2) god-like.

2. Stems other than –o– stems, when used to form the first part of a compound word, have a strong tendency to take the form of –o– stems: thus, λυρο-ποιός (λύρᾱ) lyre-maker, πατρο-κτόνος (πατήρ, πατρ-ός) father-slayer, parricide, φυσιο-λόγος (φύσι-ς) natural philosopher, ἰχθυο-πώλης (ἰχθῡ́-ς) fish-seller.

Note. – Sometimes other letters (usually ε, ι, or σι) appear between the parts of a compound word: thus, δακέ–θῡμος soul-consuming, αἰγ-ί-βοτος grazed by goats, δει-σι-δαίμων god-fearing. This seldom happens except when the first part of the compound is a verb stem, and such compounds are usually to be explained as formations from earlier (mostly verbal) noun stems which ended in this way. Analogy (§ 275) also probably played some part in such formations.

296. Tn compound nouns α, ε, or ο, at the beginning of the last part often becomes long (η or ω), unless the syllable in which it stands is already long by position (§ 53): thus, στρατ-ηγός (ἄγω) army-leader, general, ἀν-ώνυμος (ὄνομα) nameless (cf. § 132, 1).

297. Apparent Compounds. – Sometimes words often used together come to be written as one word (cf. § 1, note): thus, Διόσ-κοροι sons of Zeus (i.e. the Dioscuri, Castor and Pollux), ἀπο-πέμπω send away. Such words, although they are usually classed among compound words, are not real compounds, but only apparent.

298⁸⁹. Compound Verbs. – Verbs can be compounded (see § 207) only with prepositions (which were originally adverbs modifying the verb): thus, ἐπι-βάλλω throw on.

Note. – It must be noticed that in denominative verbs formed from compound nouns the verb is not compounded. Thus, πείθοµαι means obey, but disobey is not *ά-πειθομαι but ἀπειθῶ (-έω), a denominative verb formed from ἀ-πειθής disobedient.

299⁹⁰. Inseparable Prefixes. – Certain words used to form the first part of compound words have no separate existence. The most important are:

1. ἀν- (before a consonant ἀ-, usually called alpha privative) not, like Latin in-, English un-: thus, ἀν-αιδής shameless, ἄ-θεος godless.

2. ᾱ– conjunctive: thus, ἄ-λοχος bed-fellow.

3. δυσ– (the opposite of εὖ well), ill, dificult: thus, δύσ-ποτµος ill-starred, δυσ-χερής hard to handle.

4. ἡμι– half-: thus, ἡμί-θεος demigod.

MEANING OF COMPOUND WORD

300. The meaning of most compound words is at once evident from the meaning of their parts.

In nearly all of them the first part limits or determines the meaning of the second part: thus, ψευδό-μαντις false prophet, ὁμό-δουλος fellow-slave, ἄ-γραφος unwritten, ἀμφι-θέατρον round theater, χειρο-ποίητος hand-made, ἀργυρό-τοξος silver-bowed = having a silver bow, γλαυκ-ῶπις bright-eyed.

1. Observe that compound nouns may be either substantives or adjectives, and that often a verbal clement in a compound word may have either an active or a passive meaning: thus, compare λογο-γράφος speech-writer with ἄ-γραφος unwritten.

Note. – In compound words whose last part is a verbal formed by the suffix –ο– the written accent regularly stands on that part of the word which indicates the agent (or instrument): thus, μητρο-κτόνος mother-slayer, matricide, µητρό-κτονος mother-slain, i.e. slain by a mother; λιβο-βόλος stone-throwing, λιθό-βολος struck by stones. When the written accent is on the last part of the word, it stands on the penult if that is short, otherwise on the ultima: thus, λογο-γράφος speech-writer, but λογο-ποιός speech-maker, στρατ-ηγός army-leader, general.