Inflection

73. Inflection is a change in the form of a word to indicate its relation to other words.

1. In inflection a part of the word remains the same, and is called the Stem. Thus, the stem of ἄνθρωπος man is ἀνθρωπο-, and -ς is the ending of the nominative case; in ἔ-λῡε he was loosing, λῡε– is a stem of the present system, and ἐ- is a prefix denoting past time. (See also § 163.) Some words, in their inflection, show more than one form of stem.

2. The inflection of Nouns (Substantives and Adjectives) and Pronouns is called Declension ; the inflection of Verbs is called Conjugation.

74. Gender, Number, and Case. – There are in Greek:

three GENDERS: Masculine, Feminine and Neuter;

three NUMBERS: Singular, Dual and Plural;

five CASES: Nominative, Genitive, Dative, Accusative and Vocative.

Note 1. The dual number refers to two objects. It has but two forms, one for the nominative, accusative, and vocative, the other for the genitive and dative.

Note 2. The vocative in the plural is always like the nominative ; in the singular it is often so.

Note 3. Neuter words always have the nominative and vocative like the accusative; in the plural these cases always end in –α (at least before contraction).

75. Declensions. – There are in Greek three declensions of nouns, classed according to the endings of the stems. The First Declension has steins ending in –ᾱ, the Second Declension has stems ending in –ο. These two together are sometimes called the Vowel Declension. The Third Declension has mostly stems ending in a consonant (see § 93) and is called the Consonant Declension.

76^18. Case endings

The case endings of the vowel and the consonant declension have many points in common, as may be seen from the following table: –¹⁹

Note. – Locative Case. There are in Greek some relics of a Locative Case, confined mostly to names of places. The ending of the locative in the singular is -ι and in the plural –σι: Πῡθοῖ at Pytho (Delfi), οἴκοι at home, Ἄριει at Argos, Ἀθήνησι at Athens.

77. Accent in Declension. – 1. The written accent of a noun, throughout its declension, remains on the same syllable as in the nominative singular, or as near that syllable as the general laws of accent will allow: thus, ἄνθρωπος man, acc. sing. ἄνθρωπον, nom. plur. ἄνθρωποι, but gen. sing. ἄνθρωπου (§ 60), dat. plur. ἀνθρώποις; ὄνομα name, gen. sing. ὀνόματος (§ 59), gen. plur. ὀνομάτων (§ 60).

2. In the genitive and dative of all numbers a long final syllable, if it has written accent, has the circumflex: thus, ποταμός river, dat. sing, ποταμῷ; πούς foot, gen. plur. ποδῶν.

General rules for gender

78. 1. MASCULINE are names of Males, of Winds, of Rivers, and of Months.

2. FEMININE are names of Females, and most names of Lands, Islands, Towns, Trees, and Abstract Ideas.

3. NEUTER are most Diminutives (§ 283) and most names of Fruits.

Note. – Common Gender. Some names of beings may be used either as masculine or feminine, as occasion requires. Thus, παῖς child may be masculine or feminine, and may mean boy or girl.

79. It is customary to indicate the gender of Greek words by means of the article (§ 144): ὁ for masculine, ἡ for feminine, and τό for neuter.

FIRST DECLENSION

(the –α declension)

80. Words of the first declension are feminine or masculine. They have stems ending in ᾱ. In many of the forms this ᾱ is shortened or disguised.

A. Feminines

81. The feminines form two classes: (1) those ending in – ᾱ or –η, and (2) those ending in short –ᾱ. They are declined as follows

Other examples of the first class are: ἡμέρᾱ day (gen. sing, μἡμέρᾶς, nom. plur. ἡμέραι), σκιᾱ́ shadow (gen. sing. σκιᾶς, nom. plur. σκιαί), πύλη gate (gen. sing. πύλης nom. plur. πύλαι), γνώμη judgment (gen. sing. γνώμης nom. plur γνῶμαι).

Other examples of the second class are: μοῖρα fate (gen. sing, μοίρᾱς, nom. plur. μοῖραι), δόξα opinion (gen. sing. δόξης, nom. plur. δόξαι), τράπεζα table (gen. sing. τραπέζης, nom. plur. τραπέζαι.

82. Observe that the second class has short –a in the final syllable of three cases of the singular nominative, accusative, and vocative. The first class, on the other hand, has a long vowel (ᾱ or η) in the final syllable throughout the singular.

83²⁰. All words of the first class originally ended in –a. This a is retained if immediately preceded by ε, ι, or ρ (cf. § 15); thus, γενεᾱ́, σοφίᾱ, χώρᾱ. Otherwise it is changed to η throughout the singular: thus, τῑμή (formerly τιμᾱ́).

1. In the genitive and dative singular of words of the second class, the use of ᾱ́ or η is determined by the same rule: thus, γεφῡ́ρᾱς (because ρ precedes the ᾱ), but γλώττης.

84²¹. The Genitive Plural of the first declension always has the circumflex accent on the last syllable, because –ῶν is contracted from –ᾱ́–ων (originally *- ᾱ́–σων; cf. § 37, and the Latin ending arum in stellarum): thus, χωρῶν for χωρᾱ-́ων.

Note. – In the accusative plural –ας is for –ᾱνς (§ 34).

B. Masculines

85. The masculines have the case ending –ς in the nominative singular. They are declined as follows:

Other examples for declension are steward (like νεᾱνίας), στρατιώτης soldier (like πολῑ́της), κρτής judge(gen. sing. κριτοῦ voc. κριτά, nom. plur. κριταί), Κρνίδης son of Kronos (like Ἀτρείδης, but nom. plur. Κρονίδαι).

86. In the last syllable of the singular ᾱ is retained after ε, ι and ρ (§ 15); otherwise it changes to η. Compare § 83.

87²². The vocative singular of words in –ης, like Ἀτρείδης, ends in –η; but all words in-της, and compaund nouns and names of nationality in –ης have short –α in the vocative: thus, πολῖτα, voc. of πολίτης; citizen; σῑτοπῶλα, voc. of σῑτοπώλης grain seller; Πέρσα, voc. of Πέρσης Persian.

Note. The ending –ου of the genitive singular is borrowed bodily from the second declension (cf. § 87 a).

88²³. In some words, –εα (or –αα) is contracted to –ᾱ or –η. All cases then have the circumflex (§ 65, 1). Such words are declined as follows:

So also is declined Βορρᾶς (for Βορέᾶς with irregular –ρρ-) north wind, in the singular only.

SECOND DECLENSION

89. Words of the Second Declension are nearly all masculine or neuter. The few feminines are declined like the masculines. The stems end in ο.

The nominative singular of masculines and feminines ends in –ος. The nominative, vocative, and accusative of neuters are alike, and they end in the singular in –ον, and in the plural in –α.

90²⁴. Words of the second declension are inflected as follows:

So also are declined νόμος law (gen. sing, νόμου, nom. plur. νὀμοι), κίννδῡνος danger, ταῦρος bull (nom. plur. –ταῦροι), ποταμός river, στρατηγός general, νῆσος (fem.) island, μέτρον measure, ἷμάτιον cloack.

Contract substantives of the second declension

91. Words which have stems ending in –οο and –εο undergo contraction in accordance with the rules given in §§ 18 and 19. They are, thus, declined:

So also are declined ὁ ῥοῦς (ῥόος) stream, τὸ κανοῦν (κάνεον, cf. § 118, 3) basket.

1. Observe that the contraction of ὁστᾶ is contrary to the rule of § 18, 6.

2. Observe that the nominative dual, if it has written accent on the last syllable, has the acute (contrary to § 65, 1): thus, νώ (irregularly from νόω).

3. Observe that contracted compounds have recessive accent (§ 64) in spite of the contraction: thus, περίπλῳ (for περίπλόῳ), εὖνοι (for εὔνοοι) kindly disposed. But the written accent almost never goes back to the syllable on which it stood in the nominative singular (§ 77): thus, περίπλοι (not πέριπλοι).

Stems in –ω–

ATTIC SECOND DECLENSION

92²⁵. To the second declension belong also a few words whose stems end in co. They are, thus, declined:

So also λεώς people, κάλως cable.

1. Observe that the genitive and dative, when they have written accent on the last syllable, take the acute, contrary to § 77, 2.

2. Many of these words were produced by an interchange of quantity (§ 17), ᾱο becoming εω: thus, λεώς from λᾱός. In such words, the long vowel at the end does not affect the position of the accent (cf. § 60): thus, Μενέλεως Menelaus (from Μενέλᾱος).

3. Some words have no ν in the accusative singular. Thus, λαγώς hare has acc. sing. λαγώ and λαγών; ἕως dawn has only ἕω.

THIRD DECLENSION

93. Words of the Third (or Consonant) Declension have stems ending in a consonant, or in a vowel (ι or υ) which may sometimes be sounded as a consonant. A few stems appear to end in ο (but see §§ 112, 113).

1. The stem of words of this declension may usually be found by dropping the ending –ος of the genitive singular.

94. Gender. – The gender of words of the third declension must usually be learned by observation, but a few general rules may be given.

1. Stems ending in a labial or a palatal mute are never neuter.

2. MASCULINE are stems ending in ευ, ντ, ητ (except those in –τητ-), ωτ and ρ (except those in –αρ-).

3. FEMININE are stems ending in τητ, δ, θ, ι (with nom. in –ις), and υ (with nom. in –υς).

4. NEUTER are stems ending in αρ, ασ, ατ, ες (with nom. in –ος), and υ (with nom. in –υ).

Formation of cases

95. Neuters. – Neuter words of the third declension regularly have the nominative, accusative, and vocative singular like the simple stem. A final τ is dropped (§ 48): thus, σῶμα (stem σωματ) body.

96. Masculine and Feminine Nominative Singular. – Most masculine and feminine words of the third declension form the nominative by adding –ς to the stem. For the euphonic change which may follow, see §§ 28–30, 34: thus, κλῖμαξ (for *κλιμακ-ς) ladder (cf. Latin dux, ducis).

1. But stems in –ν-, –ρ-, –σ– and –οντ– regularly have in the nominative only the simple stem with a long vowel (§ 13): thus, λιμήν (λιμεν-) harbor, ῥήτωρ (ῥήτορ) orator, Σωκράτης (Σωκράτεσ-) Socrates, λέων (λεοντ-) lion (§ 48).

Note. Some of these words retain the long vowel of the nominative throughout their declension: thus, Ἕλλην Greek, gen. Ἕλλη-νος, etc.; χειμών winter, gen. χειμῶνος, etc.

97. Accusative Singular. – The accusative singular of masculine and feminine words adds –α to consonant stems and –ν to vowel stems: thus, πούς foot (stem ποδ-), accus. sing. πόδ-α; but πόλις city (stem πολι-), accus. sing. πόλιν. (Cf. § 14, 2 note.)

1. But stems of more than one syllable ending in ιτ or ιδ, without written accent on the last syllable, almost always drop the final mute and take the ending ν: thus, ἕρις strife (stem ἐριδ-), accus. sing. ἕριν.

98. Vocative Singular. – The vocative singular is regularly the mere stem: thus, δαίμων divinity, voc. δαῖμον (stem δαιμον-); γέρων old man, voc. γέρον– (stem γεροντ-, see § 48).

1. But masculine and feminine words which form their nominative singular without ς (§ 96, 1), when they have written accent on the last syllable, and all other mute stems (except those in –ιδ-), use the nominative singular as vocative: thus, ποιμήν (stem ποιμεν-) shepherd, voc. ποιμήν; φύλαξ; (stem φυλακ-) watchman, voc. φύλαξ (but ἐλπίς (stem ἐλπιδ-), voc. ἐλπί).

99²⁶. Dative Plural. – When ν alone is dropped before the ending –σι of the dative plural (§ 34), the preceding vowel remains unchanged, contrary to § 34: thus, ποιμέσι to shepherds, for *ποιμεν-σι; δαίμοσι to divinities, for *δαίμον-σι.

1. But when ντ is dropped, the preceding vowel is lengthened: thus, λέουσι to lions, for *λεοντ-σι; πᾶσι to all, for *παντ-σι.

100. Special Rule of Accent. – Words with stems of one syllable in the third declension regularly have the written accent on the last syllable of the genitive and dative of all numbers. If the last syllable is long, it receives the circumflex (§ 77, 2): thus, πούς foot, gen. sing. ποδός, gen. plur. ποδῶν, dat. plur. ποδί.

Note. For exceptions see δᾷς (§ 115, 5), δμώς (§ 115, 7), οὖς (§ 115, 18), παῖς (§ 115, 19), πᾶς (§ 125, 2), Τρώς (§ 115, 23), and ὤν (§ 129, 3).

CONSONANT STEMS

101. Labial and Palatal Stems. – Stems ending in a labial or palatal mute are, thus, declined:

So also are declined ὁ Αἱθίοψ (stem Αἱθιοπ-) Aethiopian, ὁ χάλυψ (stem χαλυβ-) steel, ἡ κλῖμαξ (stem κλῑμακ-) ladder, ἡ μάστιξ (stem μαστῑγ-) whip, ὁ ὄνυξ (stem ὀνυχ-) claw.

1. For the ξ and ψ in the nominative singular and dative plural, see §§ 28 and 29. For the vocative singular, see § 98, 1. For the change of θ to τ in θρίξ see § 41.

102²⁷. Lingual Stems. – Stems ending in a lingual mute are, thus, declined:

Masculine and feminine

So also are declined ὁ ἔρως (stem ἐρωτ-) love, ἡ ἐσθής (stem ἐσθητ-, gen. sing. ἐσθῆτοςτ) clothing, ἡ λαμπάς (stem λαμπαδ-, gen. sing. λαμπάδος) torch, ἡ χάρις (stem χαριτ-) favor, ὁ γίγᾱς (stem γιγαντ-) giant, ὁ έλων (stem λεοντ-) lion, ὁ ὀδούς (stem ὀδοντ-, gen. sing. ὀδόντος) tooth (the nominative singular is formed contrary to § 96, 1).

1. For the dropping of τ (and ντ), δ, or θ before δ in the nominative singular and dative plural, see § 30. For the dative plural of stems in –ντ– (like γέρουσι) see § 99, 1. For the vocative singular, see § 98, 1. For the accusative singular of stems in –ιτ– and –ιδ– (χάριν, ἔριν) see § 97, 1.

103²⁸.

NEUTER

So also are declined στόμα (stem δτοματ-) mouth, ὄνομα (stem ὀνοματ-) name, μέλι (stem μελιτ-) honey, γάλα (stem γαλακτ-) milk (§ 48).

1. A few words form their nominative from a stem in –ρ– (§ 73, 1): thus, ἦπαρ (gen. sing, ἤπατ-ος) liver, ἦμαρ (gen. sing. ἤματ-ος) day (poetic).

2. Four words, πέρασ, πέρατοσ, end; τέρασ, τέρατοσ prodigy; κέρασ, κέρατοσ, horn; φῶς (contracted from φάος), light, form their nominatives singular from a stem ending in σ (§ 73, 1). (For the full declension of κέρας see § 115, 10.)

104. Liquid Stems. – Stems ending in a liquid are, thus, declined:

So also are declined ὁ μήν (stem μην-) month, ὁ αἰών (stem αἰων-) age, ὁ κρᾱτήρ (stem κρᾱτηρ-) mixing bowl, ὁ φώρ (stem φωρ-) thief, ὁ θήρ (stem θηρ-) wild beast.

1. For the dative plural, see § 99.

Note. – In vocative singular three words, σωτήρ savior, Ἀπόλλων Apollo, and Ποσειδῶν Poseidon, have a short vowel (§ 13) in the syllable of the stem (contrary to § 98, 1) and throw the written accent back upon the first syllable: thas σῶτερ, Ἄπολλον, Πόσειδον (cf. § 105, 2).

105²⁹. Five substantives of the third declension with stems ending in ρ show in their inflection two forms of the stem, one with ε, and the other with no vowel (or with α). See §§ 14 and 73, 1.

These are: πατήρ father, μήτηρ mother, θυγάτηρ daughter, γαστήρ belly, ἀνήρ man. In ἀνήρ, a δ is developed between the ν and ρ whenever they come together. These words are, thus, declined:

Like πατήρ is declined γαστήρ belli. (See also § 115, 2.)

1. Observe that in the genitive and dative the shorter forms take their written accent on the last syllable, after the analogy of stems of one syllable (§ 100): thus, πατρός, ἀνδρῶν (but πατέρων, ἀνδράσι).

2. Observe that the vocative singular of these words has recessive accent (cf. § 104, note).

3. For the α in the dative plural, see § 14, 1.

106³⁰. Stems in –σ-. – Stems ending in σ lose their final σ whenever it comes between two vowels (§ 37) and the vowels, thus, brought together usually contract.

Such stems are, thus, inflected:

So also are declined τὸ τεῖχος wall, τὸ ἄνθος flower, τὸ ἔτος year, τὸ γῆρας old age, τὸ κέρας horn, wing (with other forms from a stem κερατ-; see § 115, 10).

1. Observe that neuters ending in –ος form their nominative, accusative, and vocative singular from the stem in –οσ-. (See §§ 14 and 73, 1).

2. In the nominative, accusative, and vocative plural of neuters in –ος, –εα after ε contracts into ᾱ. Thus, χρέᾱ for χρέε-α (*χρεεσ-α) from χρέος debt, stem χρεεσ-.

107. Masculine and feminine

So also are declined Δηνοσθένης Demosthenes, Διογένης Diogenes.

1. Observe that the vocative singular of names like Σωκράτης has recessive accent.

108³¹. Proper names in –κλεης, of which the last part is the stem κλεες– (κλέος fame), are doubly contracted in the dative. Περικλῆς (stem Περικλεεσ-) Pericles is thus, declined:

109³². Stems in –οσ-. – There is one stem in –οσ– (ἡ αἰδώς shame) which is, thus, inflected: nom. αἰδώς, gen. αἰδῦς (*αἰδος-ος, αἰδό-ος?), dat. αἰδοῖ (*αἰδόσ-ι, αἰδό-ι), acc. αἰδῶ (*αἰδοσ-α, αἰδο-α), voc. αἰδώς. The dual and plural are not found.

VOWEL STEMS

110³³. Stems in –ι– and –υ-. – Stems ending in ι or υ are, thus, declined:

So also are declined ἡ δύναμις power, ὁ μάντις seer, ὁ πέλεκυς axe (like πῆχυς), ὁ or ἡ σῦς hog (like ἰχθῡ́ς gen. sing. συ-ός), βότρυς cluster of grapes (like ἰχθῡ́ς but with short υ). Most of these words are masculine or feminine; the only neuter in frequent use is ἄστυ town.

Note. – It is probable that in words like πόλις and πῆχυς we have, as we have seen elsewhere (§ 105, 1), two forms of the same stem existing side by side, πολι– and πολει– (see §§ 14, 2 and 73, 1). Thus, the nominative is formed from the shorter stem, ut the genitive was originally from the longer stem(*πόλι-ς, *πῆχυ-ς). These latter forms, however, are not found, for the ι or υ at once went over into the corresponding consonant form (j or F) and disappeared (§ 21). In compensation the preceding vowel was sometimes lengthened (§ 16), and thus, we have πόλη-ος (in Homer) and *πηχη-ος, by an interchange of quantity (§ 17), we get the usual Attic forms πόλεως and πήχεως. Observe that the interchange of quantity does not affect the position of the accent (§ 60).

1. Most steins in –v– keep the υ throughout and are declined like ἰχθῡ́ς. Stems of one syllable have the circumflex accent in the nominative, accusative, and vocative.

2. Proper names in –ις usually retain the ι of the stem throughout their inflection: thus, Συέννεσις Syennesis, gen. Συεννέσι-ος, etc. So also is declined κῑ́ς weevil, gen. κῑός, etc.

3. Observe that the accent of the genitive plural is irregularly made like that of the genitive singular.

4. The accusatives plural, πόλεις and πήχεις, are irregularly made like the nominatives plural.

111³⁴. Stems ending in a diphthong lose the final vowel of the stem before all endings beginning with a vowel (§ 21). They are, thus, declined:

So also are declined ὁ ἱππεύς horseman, ὁ ἱρεύς priest, ὁ χοῦς three-quart measure (but w. acc χόα, acc. plur. χόας).

Note. – Many of the forms from stems in -ευ- are to be explained similarly to thouse from πῆχυς and πόλις. Thas, the genetive singular βασιλέ-ως comes by an interchange of quantity (§ 17), from βασιλῆ-ος (in Homer), and this, in turn, is for *βασιλῆφ-ος (§ 21). So also the accusatives singular and plural have -έ-ᾱ and -έ-ᾱς, for earlier -ῆ-α and -ῆ-ας.

1. Observe that the nominative, accusative, and vocative dual (βασιλῆ), and the older form of the nominative plural βασιλῆς), are contracted from βασιλῆ-ε and βασιλῆ-ες. (See note.)

2. When the final –ευ– of the stem follows a vowel or diphthong, contraction usually takes place in the genitive and accusative. Thus, Πειραιεύς Peiraeus usually has for its genitive Πειραιεῶς (for Πειραιέως)?), and for its accusative Πειραιᾶ (for Πειραιέᾱ).

112. Stems in –οι-. – Stems ending in οι (found in the singular only) lose their final ι in all cases except the vocative (§ 21). They are, thus, declined:

So also are declined ἡ ἠχώ echo, ἡ Λητώ Leto. All words which follow this declension have their written accent on the last syllable.

113³⁵. Stems in –ω– (or ωF). A few words of the third declension appear to have stems ending in ω, but this could not have been the original ending. Possibly such stems ended originally in –ωF-. They are, thus, declined:

So also are declined ὁ μήτρως mother's brother, ὁ πάτρως father's brother.

SUBSTANTIVES OF PECULIAR OR IRREGULAR DECLENSION

114³⁶. 1. The Greeks sometimes declined the same word in different ways, especially when two different stems would give the same nominative singular. Thus, the stems σκοτο– and σκοτεσ– both give a nominative singular σκοτος darkness, genitive singular σκότου (2d decl.) or σκότους (3d decl.). So also stems of proper names in –ης, like Σωκρατεσ– (nom. sing. Σωκράτης, gen. sing. Σωκράτους, ace. sing. Σωκράτη), have sometimes an accusative singular in –ην; (Σωκράτην), as if of the first declension.

2. Again, certain cases may have been formed from stems of wholly different words: thus, ὁ ὄνειρος dream (2d decl. regular), but gen. sing, also ὁνείρατος, dat. ὁνείρατι, nom. plur. ὁνείρατα, gen. ὁνειράτων, dat. ὁνείρασι. See also § 103, 1 and 2.

3. Again, words sometimes have different genders in the different numbers. Thus, σῖτος grain (masc.) has for its plural σῖτα (neuter); τὸ στάδιον stade has for its plural usually oἱ στάδιοι.

115³⁷. The peculiarities of substantives irregularly declined can best be learned from a lexicon, but some of the more important of these will be found in the following list:

1. ὁ Ἄρης (stem Ἀρεσ-) Ares, gen. Ἄρεως (poetic Ἄρεος ), dat. Ἄρει, voc. Ἄρες.

2. [ὁ, ἡ ἀρήν] (stem ἀρεν-, ἀρν-, ἀρνα-) lamb, of the same kind of declension as πατήρ (§ 105): thus, ἀρν–ός, ἀρν–ι, ἄρν-α, ἄρν-εα, ἀρνά-σι. The nominative singular is supplied by ἀμνός, 2d decl., regular.

3. τὸ γόνυ knee (Lat. genu), nom. ace. voc. sing. All other cases are formed from stem γόνατ- ος, γόνατ-ι, etc.

4. ἡ γυνή woman. All other forms come from a stem γυναικ-: the genitives and datives have their written accent on the last syllable: gen. sing. γυναικός, dat. γυναικί, acc. γυναῖκα, voc. γύναι ; dual γυναῖκε, γυναικοῖν; plur. γυναῖκες, γυναικῶν, γυναιξί, γυναῖκας. (Cf. § 73, 1).

5. ἡ δᾶς (δᾷδ-) torch, 3d decl., regular, but the genitive plural δᾷ́δων is an exception to the rule of accent for stems of one syllable (§ 100).

6. τὸ δόρυ spear, nom. ace. voc. sing. All other case from stem δορατ– (cf. γόυν, § 115, 3): δόρατ–ος, δόρατ–ι, etc. (cf. § 73, 1). Poetic gen. δορός, dat. δορί and δόρeι.

7. ὁ δμώς (δμω-) slave (poetic); 3d decl., regular, but the genitive plural (δμώων) is an exception to the rule of accent for stems of one syllable (§ 100).

8. Ζεύς (cf. § 39, 2) Ζeus, gen. Διός, dat. Διϊ; acc. Δία, voc. Ζεῦ.

9. τὸ κάρᾱ (καρᾱτ-, κρᾱτ-, § 73, 1) head (poetic), gen. κρᾱτ–ος, dat. κρᾱτ-ί or κάρᾷ, acc. κάρᾱ (or even κρᾶτα), voc. κάρᾱ; acc. plur. (rare) τοὺς κρᾶτας.

10. τὸ κέρας horn, wing, has forms from two different stems, κερασ– and κερατ-. See § 103, 2, and a. Sing. nom. acc. voc. κέρας, gen. κέρᾱτ or κέρως (for *κερα(σ)-ος, dat. κέρᾱτ–ι or κέρᾷ; dual nom. acc. voc. κέρᾱτε or κέρᾱ, gen. dat. κερᾱ́τοιν or κέρῳν; plur. nom. acc. voc. κέρᾱτα or κέρᾱ, gen. κερᾱ́των, dat. κέρᾱσι. In the meaning wing, forms from the stem κερασ are usually employed.

11. ὁ, ἡ κύων dog, voc. sing. κύον. All other cases from a stem κυν-: κυνός, κυνί, κύνα; plur. κυνeς, κυνῶν, κυσί, κύνας.

12. ὁ λᾶς stone (poetic), contracted from λᾶα-ς, gen. λᾶ-ος, dat. λᾶ-ϊ, acc. λᾶα-ν, λᾶ-ν; plur. λᾶ-ες, λᾱ́-ων, λᾱ́-εσσι, or λᾱ́-εσι.

13. ὁ, ῥ μάρτυς (μαρτυρ-) witness, gen. μάρτυρ-ος, etc., regular, except dat. plur μάρτυσι.

14. Οἰδίπους Oedipus, gen. Οἰδίποδος or Οἰδίπου (§ 114, 1), dat. Οἰδίποσι, acc. Οἰδίπουν, voc. Οἰδίπους or Οἰδίπου.

15. ἡ οἶς sheep (stem οι– for ὀφι-, cf. Lat. ovis), sing. οἶ-ς, οἰ-ός, οἰ-ΐ», οἶ-ν; plur. οἶ-ες, οἰ-ῶv, οἰ-σί, οἶς.

16. ὁ, ἡ ὄρνῑς (ὀρνῑθ-) bird, declined regularly (§ 102), but acc. sing, both ὄρνῑθα and ὄρνῑν (§ 97, 1).

17. τὸ οὖς ear, sing. nom. acc. voc. οὖς, all other forms from a stem ὠτ– (contracted from οὐατ– (*ὀ(φ)ατ-), see § 115, 18 a): thus, ὠτ-ός, ὠτ-ί; plur. ὦ-τα, ὤ-των, ὠσί. The genitive plural is an exception to the rule of accent for stems of one syllable (§ 100).

18. ὁ, ἡ παῖς (παιδ-) child, gen. παιδός, etc., regular, but voc. sing. παῖ. The genitive and dative dual (παί– δοιν) and the genitive plural (παίδων) are exceptions to the rule of accent for stems of one syllable (§ 100).

19. ἡ Πνύξ Pnyx (Πνυκ/c-, Πυκν-, § 38), Πυκνός, Πυκνί, Πύκνα.

20. ὁ πρεσβευτής (πρεσβευτᾱ-) embassador, rare in the plural. Instead, the plural of the poetic πρέσβυς (πρεσβυ-) old man is commonly used: thus, πρέσβεις, πρέσβεων, πρέσβεσι, πρέσβεις.

21. τὸ πῦρ (stem πυρ-) fire, gen. πυρός, etc., 3d decl.; but plural τὰ πυρά watch-fires, dat. πυροῖς, 2d decl.

22. ὁ Τρώς (stem Τρω-) Trojan; the genitive plural (Τρώων) is an exception to the rule of accent for stems of one syllable (§ 100).

23. τὸ ὔδωρ (ὑδατ-) water, gen. ὕδατος, etc.

24. ὁ υἱός (υἱό– and sometimes ὑο-, § 21) son, 2d decl., regular; also many 3d decl. forms from a stem υἱυ– or ὑυ (ι being usually dropped between the two vowels, § 21). These are: sing. gen. υ(ἱ)έος, dat. υ(ἱ)εῖ ; dual υ(ἱ)εῖ, υ(ἱ)έοιν; plur. υ(ἱ)εῖς, υ(ἱ)έων, υ(ἱ)έσι, υ(ἱ)εῖς.

25. ῥ χεἰρ (χειρ-) hand, 3d decl., regular, but dat. plur. χερσί, and sometimes dat. dual χεροῖν.

116. The declension of adjectives in Greek is like that of substantives, and the general statements given under the three declensions of substantives will apply also to the declension of adjectives.

FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS

(Vowel Declension)

117³⁸. Most adjectives of the first and second declensions have three endings, masc. –ος, fern, –ᾱ or –η (§ 15), neut. –ος (cf. §§ 81 and 90). The masculine and neuter follow the second declension; the feminine follows the first declension. They are inflected as follows:

So alswo are declined σοφός, σοφή, σοφόν wise, μακρός, μακρᾱ́, μακρόν long, ἄξιος, ἀξίᾱ, ἄξιον worthy.

1. Observe that the feminine always has a long vowel, either ᾱ or η. After ε, ι or ρ the ᾱ is retained, otherwise it is changet to η (§ 83). After ο on η follows, unlees the ο is preceded by ρ; then ᾱ is employed: thas ὀγδόη (fem.) eight, but ἀθρόᾱ (fem.) collected.

2. Observe that, in regard to accent, the feminine follows the masculine rather than its own nominative singular. Thas φίλιαι nom. plur. and φιλίων gen. plur (contrary to §§ 77 and 84).

3. In the dual, the masculine forms are often used instead of the feminine. Thas, φίλω κόρα, two dear girls.

118. Many adjectives in –εος and -οος are contracted. They are, thus, declined:

1. Observe that in contraction, a short vowel before a is absorbed. Thus, χρῡσέαις becomes χρῡσάις and ἁπλόα ἁπλᾶ. In the feminine singular, however, this takes place only after ρ: ἀργυρέᾱ, ἀργυρᾶ, but ἁπλέᾱ, ἁπλῆ (cf. § 83).

2. Observe that adjectives in –οος form their contracted feminine from a stem in –εα-.

3. Adjectives of material in –εος irregularly have their written accent on their contract syllables. Thus, χρῡ́σεος, when contracted, becomes χρῡσοῦς. For the accent of the nominative dual (χρῡσώ) cf. § 91, 2.

Adjectives of two endings in the vowel declension

119³⁹. By an adjective of two endings, we mean one that uses the masculine form also for the feminine. Thus, masc. and fern. ἥσυχος, neut. ἥσυχον quiet.

Compound adjectives, as a rule, have only two endings: so ἄ-λογος, ἄ-λογον irrational, εὔ-νους, εὔ-νουν well-disposed. They are, thus, declined:

So also are declined βάρβαρος, βάρβαρον barbarian, ἐπί-φθονος, ἐπί-φθονον envious, ἄ-τεκνος, ἄ-τεκνον childless: so also with contraction (see § 91, 3), εὔ-νους (εὔ-νοος), εὔ-νουν well-disposed.

1. For the accent of ἵλεως, see § 92, 2.

2. One adjective, πλέως, full has a feminine πλέᾱ.

THIRD DECLENSION

(Consonant Declension)

120⁴⁰. Adjectives belonging wholly to the consonant declension have only two endings, the masculine being the same as the feminine.

Most of these have stems ending in εσ– or ον. They are, thus, declined:

So also are declined σαφής, σαφές clear; ἐνδεής, ἐνδεές needy (see § 120, 3); σώφρων, σῶφρων discreet; ἄρρην, ἄρρεν male. For fuller information about stems in –εσ– see §§ 106–107.

1. Observe that the accent of the neuter εὔδαιμον is recessive.

2. Compound adjectives in –ης, without written accent on the last syllable, have recessive accent even in contracted forms: Thus, masc. and fem. αὐτάρκης self-sufficient, neut. αὔταρκες, gen. plur. αὐτάρκων (instead of αὐτάρκῶν from αὐτάρκέ(σ)-ων.

3. The contraction of εα following an ε (and sometimes an ι or υ) gives ᾱ (cf. § 118, 1): thus, ἐνδεᾶ for e from ἐνδεέ(σ)-α from ἐνδεής needy.

121. Declension of Comparatives in –ων. – To this form of declension belong also comparatives in –ων, which in some cases are often formed on a stem in –οσ– (§ 73, 1) (cf. Lat. mel–ίōr–is for *mel-iōs-is), and so suffer contraction. They are, thus, declined:

So also are declined μείξων greater (neut. μεῖξον), καλλῑ́ων more beautiful, θᾱ́ττων swifter.

1. Observe that the neuter (βέλτῑον) is recessive in accent.

2. The accusative βελτῑους (which should properly be βελτῑως for βελτῑο(σ)-ας is imitated from the nominative.

Other adjectives of two endings in the consonant declension

Some other adjectives of two endings are made by compounding substantives with a prefix. Such, for example, are:

εὔ-ελπις, εὔ-ελπι of good hope, gen. sing. εὐέλπιδ-ος, acc. sing. masc. and fem. εὔελπιν (§ 97, 1), ἀ-πάτωρ, ἄ-πατορ fatherless, gen. sing, ἀ-πάτορ-ος, etc.

ADJECTIVES OF THREE ENDINGS OF THE FIRST AND THIRD DECLENSIONS

122. Adjectives of the consonant declension which have a separate form for the feminine always inflect the feminine like the second class of substantives of the first declension (§§ 81, 82).

1. The feminine is formed from the stem of the masculine by adding –ια, but the ι regularly combines with the preceding letter (see § 18, 1, and § 39).

2. The genitive plural of the feminine always has the circumflex accent on the last syllable (§ 84).

123⁴¹. Stems in –υ-. – Adjectives with stems ending in υ are, thus, declined:

So also are declined γλυκύς sweet, βραδύς slow, εὐρύς wide.

1. Observe that the genitive singular masculine and neuter ends in –ος, and that the neuter plural is uncontracted. Compare the declension of πῆχυς and ἄστυ (§ 110).

Note. The feminine ταχεῖα is for *ταχευ-ια (cf. § 14, 2 and § 21).

124. Stems in –αν-. – Adjectives with steims ending in αν are, thus, declined:

Like μέλᾱς is declined only τάλᾱς? wretched.

Note. The feminine μέλαινα is for *μέλαν-ια (see § 39, 4).

1. The nominative singular masculine is formed with ς, contrary to § 96, 1. Observe that the nominative singular masculine (μέλᾱς) has long ᾱ according to § 34, while the short a of the dative plural (μέλᾱσι) is in accordance with § 99.

125. Stems in –ντ-. – Stems in –ντ– are, thus, declined:

Like χαρίεις are inflected πτερόεις winged, voiced.

Note 1. The feminine –πᾶσα is for *παντ-jα, *παντ-σα (§ 34), while χαρίεσσα (-εττα, see § 125, 1) is for *χαρίεντια (§ 39, 1), from a shorter form of the stem (χαριετ-). The dative plural χαρίεσι (for *χαριετ-σι, § 30) also comes from this stem.

Note 2. The nominatives singular masculine χαρίεις and πᾶς are for *χαριεντ-ς and *παντ-ς. See § 34.

1. The feminine of adjectives like χαρίες occurs only in poetic diction, and so the feminine χαρίεσσα has σσ instead of ττ (§ 22). The Attic prose form of this word would be χαρίεττα.

2. Observe that the genitives and datives πάντων, πᾶσι are accented contrary to § 100.

3. Observe that the neuter singular πᾶν irregularly has ᾱ, imitated from the masculine.

Adjectives of one ending

126. A few adjectives from their meaning have no neuter, and the masculine and feminine are inflected alike: so ἄ-παις childless, gen. sing. ἄ-παιδ-ος, etc.; πένης poor, gen. sing. πένητ–ος, etc.

ADJECTIVES OF IRREGULAR DECLENSION

127⁴². The irregular adjectives μέγας great (stems μεγα and μεγαλο-, § 73, 1) and πολύς much, many (stems πολυ and πολλο-, § 73, 1) are, thus, declined:

Note. In πολύς two stems are to be seen (§ 73, 1), one with and one without ο: thus, (1) πολλυ– and (2) πολλυ-, i.e. πολφο, and by assimilation πολλο.

128. Declension of πρᾷος. – πρᾷος mild (stem πρᾷο-) forms its feminine and usually most of its plural from a stem πρᾱυ– (§ 73, 1). Thus, nom. sing. fern. πρᾱεῖα (for *πρᾱευα–ια; cf. ταχεῖα, § 123, note), nom. plur. masc. πρᾷοι or πρᾱεῖς, gen. plur. masc. πρᾷ́ων or (usually) πρᾱέων, etc.

DECLENSION OF PARTICIPLES

129. All participles of the middle voice, together with the participle of the future passive, are inflected like ἀγαθός (§ 117).

All other participles, namely, the participles of the active voice, together with the participle of the aorist passive, belong to the first and third declensions (§ 122). The stems of all of these, with the exception of the perfect active participle, end in ντ. Such participles are, thus, declined:

So also are declined παιδεύων educating (like βουλεύων, λιπών (2d aor.) having left (like ὤν), ἑκών willing (like ὤν), παιδεύσᾱς having educated (like λῡ́σᾱς), ἱστᾱ́ς erecting (like λῡ́σᾱς), παιδευθείς educated (like λυτείς), τιθείς putting (like λυτείς).

1. Observe that all stems in –οντ-, except those of –μι verbs (§ 170), form their nominative singular masculine without –ς, according to § 96, 1. All other stems in –ντ– form their nominative by adding –ς.

2. Observe that the accent of the neuter singular follows that of the masculine (βουλεῦον, unlike εὔδαιμον, § 120, 1).

3. Observe that participles of one syllable keep their written accent on the first syllable in the genitive and dative, contrary to § 100.

4. Observe that the vocative singular is like the nominative (cf. § 98, 1).

130. The present participle of verbs in –ῶ, (-άω, -έω and –όω) and the future participle of liquid verbs (§ 213) are contracted. They are declined as follows:

1. The present participle of δηλῶ (-όω), δηλῶν (for δηλόων), is inflected exactly like φιλῶν. The uncontracted forms do not occur.

131. Perfect Active Participles. – The stem of the perfect active participle ends in οτ or ος (§ 73, 1). The declension is as follows:

So also are inflected πεπαιδευκώς, –κυῖα, –κός having educated; ἑστώς, ἑστῶσα, ἑστός standing (stem ἑστωτ-(ἑστωσ–), contracted from ἑσταοτ-).

Note. The neuter of ἑστώς is usually written ἑστός, probably to distinguish it from the masculine, since otherwise both would be ἑστώς.

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

132. Comparison by –τερος, –τατος. – Most adjectives form the comparative degree by adding –τερος, –τερᾱ, – τερον (declined like μακρός, § 117) to the masculine stem of the positive. The superlative is formed by adding –τατος, –τατη, –τατον (declined like ἀγαθός, § 117) to the same stem. Thus,:

1. Stems in –o– lengthen the final o of the stem unless the preceding syllable is long (either by nature or position, §§ 52, 53). Thus,:

2. A few words usually drop the final o of the stem: thus, γεραιός old, comparative γεραίτερος; φίλος friendly, comparative φίλτερος, superlative φίλτατος.

133. Adjectives in –ων and –ους (-οος) are compared as if their stems ended in εσ: thus, σώφρων discreet, comparative σωφρονέσ–τερος, etc.; εὔνους well disposed, comparative εὐνούστερος etc. (for *εὐνοεσ–τερος).

134⁴³. Comparison by –ῑων, –ιστος. – A few adjectives are compared by adding to the root of the positive the endings –ῑων, – ῑον to form the comparative, and –ιστος, –ιστη, –ιστον to form the superlative. The superlative is declined like ἀγαθός (§ 117); for the declension of the comparative see § 121. Thus,:

135. Comparison by (μᾶλλον, μάλιστα. – Adjectives are sometimes compared by means of the adverbs μᾶλλον more and μάλιστα most. Thus, φίλος friendly, μᾶλλον φίλος more friendly, μάλιστα φίλος most friendly.

136. Irregular Comparison. – The following list contains the most important adjectives of irregular comparison:

137⁴⁴. Form of Adverbs. – Most Adverbs end in –ως, and are regularly derived from adjectives. Their form is in all respects like the genitive plural, except that the last letter is ς instead of ν.

Their form can always be determined by substituting 5 for the final ν of the genitive plural.

Thus, σοφῶς wisely (σοφός wise, gen. plur. πάντως wholly (πᾶς whole gen. plur. πάντων), ταχέως quickly (ταχύς quick, gen. plur. ταχέων), σαφῶς clearly (σαφής clear, gen. plur. contracted (§ 120) σαφῶν).

Note. The adverb corresponding to ἀγαθός good is εὖ well.

1. Besides the regularly formed adverbs many nouns (some of them obsolete) and some pronominal stems are used in certain cases adverbially.

Thus, πολύ much (§ 336), σπουδῇ earnestly (§ 389), οἴκολ at home (see § 76, note), πρῴ early, ἀμαχεί without a battle, ποῖ whither, ποῶ where (cf. § 358), οὐδαμοῦ nowhere (cf. § 358).

2. Certain local endings of the nature of case-endings (§ 76) are used to form adverbs of place. These are: –θι, Place Where, as in ἄλλο-θι elsewhere; –θεν, Place Whence, as in οἴκο-θεν from home, πάντο-θεν from all sides; –δε, Place Whither, as in οἴκα-δε homeward, Ἀθήνᾱζε (for Ἀθήνᾱς-δε) toward Athens.

138. Comparison of Adverbs. – Adverbs in –ως employ for their comparative the neuter singular of the comparative of their adjective ; for their superlative they employ the neuter plural of the superlative.

Thus, σοφῶς wisely, σοφώτερον more wisely, σοφώτατα most wisely; ῥᾷδίως easily, ῥᾷον more easily, ῥᾷστα most easily.

1. Adverbs in –ω have the comparative and superlative ending in –ω. Thus, ἄνω above, ἀνωτέρω higher, ἀνωτά) highest. above, avcorepco higher, ἀνω highest.

2. The adverb μάλα very has for its comparative μᾶλλον (for μάλ-ιον, § 39, 3), and for its superlative μάλιστα.

139⁴⁵. The Personal Pronouns. – The pronouns of the first, second, and third person are, thus, declined:

Note. – The stems of the pronoun of the first person are (ἐ) με-(the nominative ἐγώ being of different formation), νω-, and ἡμε- (from ἁμμε-); of the second person συ- (for τυ-), σε- (for *τφε-) σφω-, and ῡ́με (from ὑμμε-); of the third person ἑ– (originally *σφε-, § 36 a), ἑε– (for *σεφε-), and σφε-. From the shorter stem τν– of the second person comes only the nominative σύ (cf. πολύς, § 127, note). From the longer form of the stem of the third person ἑε– (*σεφε-) comes the Homeric form ἑὴ, acc.

1. The enclitic (§ 70) forms are used when there is no emphasis on the pronoun. Thus, δοκεῖ μοι it seems (to me). But when the pronoun is emphatic the forms with written accent (and in the first person the longer forms ἐμοῦ), etc.) are employed: thus, εἰπὲ καὶ ἐμοί tell even me. This is regularly the case when prepositions are used with the pronouns: thus, παῤ ἐμοῦ from beside me, περὶ σοῦ about you.

2. The pronoun of the third person οὗ, οἷ, ἕ, when used as a direct reflexive (§ 470), is never enclitic.

Note 1. The Tragedians for the accusative of the third personal pronoun use νιν (encl.) and σφε (encl.) for all genders both singular and plural.

Note 2. The genitive, dative, and accusative plural of the first and second persons sometimes throw their written accent to the first syllable (often shortening at the same time the final syllable): thus, ἥμων, ἧμιν, ὗμας.

140⁴⁶. The Intensive Pronouns αὐτός. – The pronoun αὐτός self, same is thus, inflected:

Like αὐτός is inflected also ἄλλος, ἄλλη, ἄλλο other.

1. In Attic the oblique cases of αὐτός are usually employed instead of the pronoun of the third person οὗ, οἷ, ἕ etc.

141⁴⁷. Reflexive Pronouns. – The reflexive pronouns are formed from the stems of the personal pronouns compounded with αὐτός. From their meaning they can have no nominative case. The third person has also a neuter. In the plural both stems are declined together, yet the third person plural has also the compound form. They are, thus, declined:

1. σεαυτοῦ and ἐαυτοῦ are often contracted: σαυτοῦ, σαυτῆς; αὑτοῦ, αὑτῆς, etc.

142. Reciprocal Pronouns. – The reciprocal pronouns, meaning one another, from its meaning has no singular number, and no nominative or vocative case declined:

143⁴⁸. Possessive Pronouns. – The possessive pronouns are formed from the stems of the personal pronouns. They are:

1. The possessive ὅς is not used in Attic prose, but its place is taken by the genitive of αὐτός (§ 477–8).

144⁴⁹. Demonstrative Pronouns. – The definite article ὁ, ἡ, τό, is thus, inflected:

145⁵⁰. The demonstrative pronouns ὅδε, ἥδε, τόδε this, and οὗτος, αὕτη, τοῦτο this, that, are, thus, declined:

1. Observe that the use of ου or αυ in οὗτος depends on the character of the last syllable, ου being used to correspond to an o-sοund, and αυ to correspond to an α (η)-sοund.

146⁵¹. Ἐκεῖνος, ἐκείνη, ἐκεῖνο that, is declined like αὐτός (§ 140).

147. The demonstrative pronouns are sometimes made more emphatic by adding -ῑ́: thas οὑτοσῑ, τουτουΐ. In such case a preceding short vowel is dropped: thus, οσῑ, ταυτῑ.

148⁵². Interrogative and Indefinite Pronouns. – The interrogative pronoun is τίς, τί who? what? The indefinite pronoun is τίς, τί, enclitic (§ 70), some, any. They are, thus, declined:

1. The acute accent of the interrogative, τίς, τί never changes to the grave (§ 67).

Note 1. – The form ἄττα is sometimes used for the indefinite τίνα.

Note 2. – Δεῖνα. Another indefinite pronoun, used in familiar speech, is δεῖνα “Mr. what’s his name”, always with article: ὁ (ἡ, τὸ) δεῖνα. Sometimes it is not declined, but when declined it is inflected as follows: ὁ δεῖνα, τοῦ δεῖνος, τῷ δεῖνι, τόν δεῖνα, οἱ δεῖνες, τῶν δεῖνων, τοὺς δεῖνους.

149⁵³. Relative Pronouns. – The relative pronoun ὅς, ἥ, ὅ who, which, is thus, inflected:

150⁵⁴. The indefinite relative pronoun, ὅστις, ἥτις, ὅ τι (sometimes written ὅ,τι) whoever, whichever, is made by joining ὅς and –τὶς, both parts being declined.

1. The shorter forms ὅτου, ὅτᾧ are more common than οὗτινος, ᾧτινι.

Note. – The indefinite τίς may be added also to other relatives to make them more indefinite: thas ὁποῖός τις of whatsoever kind.

151. Correlation of Pronouns. – In Greek certain pronominal adjectives and adverbs show a regular correspondence in form and meaning. Thas the interrogative form begins with πο-, the indefinite has the same form but is enclitic, the demonstrative has το-, and the relative ὁ- or (general relative) ὁπο-. This may best be seen from the following list:

1. Observe that some correlative forms are lacking, having been supplanted by other words. Thus, ἐνθάδε or ἐνταῦθα is the usual word for here; ὧδε and οὕτως thus, have crowded out the earlier (Epic and poetic) τώς.

Note. The indefinite relative pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs may be made more indefinite by adding οὖν, δή, or δή ποτε thus, ὅστις οὖν (or ὅστισοῦν), ὁστισ-δή-ποτε, or even ὁστισ-δη-ποτ-οῦν who-so-ever.

152⁵⁵. The Greek numerals are as follows: