Writing and sound

1. Greek is written with the following twenty-four letters:

1. The names in parentheses came into use in the Middle Ages, but are now commonly employed.

Sigma at the end of a word has the form ς; in any other place the form σ. Thus, στάσις faction.

2. The letter F, ϝ, called vau or digamma, early ceased to be used in Attic and Ionic Greek. It had the sound of English w, and stood in the alphabet between ε and ζ. For other obsolete letters see § 156¹.

3. The vowels ε and ο are always short, η and ω are always long. The vowels α, ι, υ, are short in some words and long in others. In this grammar they are marked ᾱ, ῑ, ῡ, when long. The unmarked α, ι, υ, are, therefore, understood to be short. The mark of length is omitted over circumnexed vowels (§ 58).

4. The Attic sounds of the vowels, at about 400 b.c., are believed to have been nearly as follows:

1. The sounds of ῡ and υ are midway between English oo and ee. They are exemplified also in the German ü, as in Füsse, Brücke.

5². A diphthong is a combination of two vowels in one syllable. The latter vowel is always ι or υ. The diphthongs are:

1. In the diphthongs ᾷ, ῃ, ῳ, the ι is written below the first vowel, and is called iota subscript. When, however, the first vowel is written as a capital letter, ι stands on the line: thus, Ἅιδης Hades. The ancients always wrote i in these diphthongs on the line.

6. The sounds of the principal diphthongs, at about 400 b.c., were very nearly as follows:

1. In ᾷ, ῃ, ῳ, the ι was originally sounded. But later (about 100 b.c.) it became silent, and these diphthongs have since been pronounced like simple ᾱ, η, ω.

2. The sound of ηυ cannot be exemplified from English, but may be represented as ēh-oo, pronounced quickly together.

3. In the earliest times, the diphthongs ει and ου had, in some words at least, actual double sounds, such as their composition would indicate, and differed in pronunciation from the apparent diphthongs ει and ου, which arise from contraction of ε-ε, ο-ο, ο-ε, or ε-ο (see § 18, 3 and 5) or from compensative lengthening (see § 16). Thus, ει in γένει is made up of ε+ι (see § 18,1 and § 106), but in θεἰς for ⃰θεντς (see § 16,1) ει is merely lengthened from ε. In early inscriptions the real diphthongs ει and ου were written ΕΙ and ΟΓ, while the apparent diphthongs were written with simple Ε and Ο. Later (soon after 400 b.c.) both kinds of diphthongs came to be pronounced and written alike.

Diaeresis

7. The mark of diaeresis (΅) is sometimes written over an ι or υ, to show that it does not combine with the preceding vowel to form a diphthong: thus, βοϊ, pronounced in two syllables, bo-ί.

8³. A vowel at the beginning of a word always has a breathing, either rough or smooth.

The rough breathing (‛) shows that the vowel was pronounced with the sound of h preceding. Thus, ἑπτά seven is pronounced heptά.

The smooth breathing (’) shows that the vowel was pronounced with no sound of h. Thus, ἀπό from is pronounced αρό.

1. The mark of breathing is written over small letters and in front of capitals: thus, ἀληθής true, Ἀρκάς Arcadian.

2. In a diphthong, however, the breathing is written over the second vowel: thus, Αἰνείᾱς Aeneas, αὐτός self.

Note. – But in the diphthongs ᾷ, ῃ, ῳ, the breathing never stands over the ι, even when this is written on the line: thus, Ἅιδης Hades, ᾠδή song.

9. The consonant ρ at the beginning of a word always has the rough breathing (ῥ) : thus, ῥήτωρ orator (Lat. rhetor).

10. It happens also that all words beginning with the letter υ have the rough breathing.

11. The consonants were thus, pronounced:

1. Gamma (γ) before κ, γ, χ, ξ, represented the sound of n in ink, and is called gamma nasal: thus, ἀγκών (pronounced ankṓn) elbow, ἄγγελος (pronounced άngelos) messenger.

2. Rho (ρ) at the beginning of a word had a sound somewhat like hr (compare § 9).

Note. In Greek, every consonant was sounded. Thus, κτίσις a founding, φθίσις decay, ψεῠδος falsehood, were pronounced respectively ktisis, phthisis, pseudos.

12. The consonants may be divided into three classes, Semivowels, Mutes, and Double Consonants.

1. The semivowels are, λ, μ, ν, ρ, σ, and γ-nasal (§ 11, 1). Of these:

σ is called a Sibilant,

λ, μ, ν and ρ are called Liquids,

μ, ν and γ-nasal (§ 11, 1) are called Nasals.

2. The mutes may be classified as follows:

Those in the same horizontal line are said to be Cognate, because they are produced by the same organ of speech (lips, tongue, or palate). Those in the same perpendicular line are said to be Co-ordinate, because they have the same degree of aspiration (or vocalization).

3. The double consonants are ζ, ξ, ψ. Of these, ξ is written for κσ, γσ, χσ, and ψ for πσ, βσ, or φσ.

13⁴. In the inflection and formation of words, short and long vowels of similar sound often interchange: thus, δί-δο-μεν we give, δί-δω-μι I give; λιμήν harbor, λιμέν of a harbor.

Note. The long vowel corresponding to α is often η (see § 15).

1. The corresponding short and long forms may be seen from the following table:

14. The same root or suffix often appears with a different short vowel, as, for example, λέγ-ω speak, λόγ-ος speech; λύ-ο-μεν we loose, λύ-ε-τε you loose. Three different forms of this appearance are recognized, but the same root or suffix does not always present all three forms.

These forms are, (1) with ο, (2) with ε (3) with no vowel. Thus, ποτ-ᾱνός able to fly, πέτ-ομαι fly, ἐ-π τ-όμην fleiw.

1. But in case the third form (without the vowel) brings together a combination of consonants hard to pronounce, there is developed from the adjacent consonants in pronunciation a vowel sound, a. Thus, instead of *ἐ-τρ φ-ην, we have ἐτράφην was nourished, so that the series (of § 14) becomes (1) ο, (2) ε, (3) α: thus, τέ-τροφ-α have nourished, τρέφ-ω nourish, ἐ-τραφ-ην was nourished. (Compare English sing, sang, sung, and German sterben, starb, gestorben.*)

Note. An sometimes appears as the vowel-equivalent of ν: thus, παθος (for *πνθος) experience, suffering.

2. In combination with ι or υ the vowels e and ο, of course, make the corresponding diphthongs, so that we seem to have, on the one hand, an interchange of (1) οι, (2) ει, and (3) ι, and on the other, an interchange of (1) ου (rare), (2) ευ, and (3) υ ; but it will be seen at once that this apparent «interchange» is really the same phenomenon which has been described above (§ 14): thus,

3. The following table and examples may serve to make this principle clearer:

15⁵. In Attic, original ᾱ becomes η unless it is preceded by ε, ι, or ρ. Thus, original (Doric) φᾱ́μᾱ report becomes φήμη; but γενεᾱ́ generation, σοφίᾱ wisdom, πρâγμα deed retain α.

1. But a arising from contraction (§ 18) or compensative lengthening (§ 16) remains unchanged.

Compensative lengthening

16. A short vowel is sometimes lengthened, to make up for the loss of a following consonant. Thus, for *θεντ-ς we have μέλᾱ-ς black.

1. In this process, ε becomes ει (not η), and ο becomes ου (not ω). Thus, *θεντ-ς gives θεις, having placed, *δοντ-ς gives δούς having given.

Interchange of quantity

17. The combinations ᾱο and ηο often change to εω and ηα to εᾱ. Thus, νᾱός temple becomes νεώς, βασιλῆα king becomes βασιλέᾱ.

18⁶. Contraction unites into one long vowel or diphthong vowels which stand next each other in different syllables. The following are the most important rules for contraction. (Many of them admit occasional exceptions, § 715).

1. A vowel υ or ι unites with the preceding vowel to form a diphthong. Thus, γένε-ϊ gives γένει, πειθο-ϊ gives πειθοȋ, πρω-ϊ gives πρῲ.

2. Two like vowels unite in the common long. Thus, γέρα-α gives γέρᾱ, φιλέ-ητε gives φιλῆτε.

3. But ε–ε gives ει, and ο-ο gives ου (§ 6, 3). Thus, φίλε-ε gives φίλει, πλό-ος gives πλοῡς.

4. An o sound absorbs α, ε, or η, and becomes ω. Thus, ὀρά-ομεν gives ὁρῶμεν, φιλέ-ωσι gives φιλῶσι, δηλό-ητε gives δηλῶτε.

5. But ε-ο and ο-ε both give ου (§ 6, 3). Thus, γένε-ος gives γένους, δήλο-ε gives δήλου.

6. When α and ε or η come together, the first in order absorbs the second, and becomes long. Thus, γένε-α gives γένη, ὁρά-ητε gives ὁρȃτε.

19. A vowel standing before a diphthong is often contracted with the first vowel of the diphthong. The last vowel of the diphthong is regularly retained in the contracted form, but the apparent diphthongs ει and ου (§ 6, 3) are contracted, like simple ε and ο. Thus, τῑμά-ει gives τῑμᾷ (cf. § 5, 1), φιλέ-ει gives φιλεῑ, τῑμά-οιμι gives τῑμῲμι, λῡ́η–αι gives λῡ́ῃ, but τῑμά-ειν gives τῑμȃν, τῑμά-ον gives τῑμῶ (since ει and ου here are not real diphthongs; see § 6, 3).

Note 1. When three successive vowels are contracted, the last two are first contracted, and with the resulting diphthong the first vowel is then contracted. Thus, έτῑμάεο (for *ετῑμαε-ο-ο) you were being honored contracts first into ἐτῑμάου, and this in turn contracts into ἐτῑμῶ.

Note 2. Synizesis. Sometimes in poetry two vowels, without being regularly contracted, were so far united in pronunciation as to form one syllable. Thus, πόλεως might be pronounced as a word of two syllables, -εω- sounding somewhat like –υō-. This is called synizesis (setting together).

20. Between two consonants, a short vowel is sometimes dropped. (This is called Syncope.) Thus, ἔδται shall be, for ἔδεται ; ἦλθον came, for ἦλυθον.

21. Between two vowels, the vowels ι and υ are sometimes dropped. Thus, πλεί-ων more becomes πλείων ; *βασιλευ-ων becomes βασιλέων of kings.

CONSONANT CHANGES

Doubled consonants

22⁷. Attic regularly has ττ in place of Ionic σσ.

The Ionic form, however, is adopted by some of the Attic poets and earlier writers of prose.

23. Whenever the initial ρ, by inflection or composition, has a single vowel brought before it, the ρ is doubled: thus, ῥέω flow, ἔρρει was flowing. A diphthong, however, does not cause the ρ to be doubled: thus, εὔ-ροος fairflowing.

24. The ρσ of earlier Attic later assimilates to ρρ. Thus, θάρσος courage later becomes θάρρος.

Mutes before mutes

25. Before a lingual mute, a labial or a palatal mute becomes coordinate (see § 12, 2).

For example, *γεγραφ-ται have been becomes γέγραπται has been written, *λελεγ-ται becomes λέλεκται has been said, *ἐλειπθην becomes ἐλείφθην was left, *έτριβ-θην becomes έτριφθην was rubbed.

26. A lingual mute before another lingual mute is changed to σ. Thus,*ιδ-τε becomes ἴστε you know, *έπειθθην becomes έπείσθην was persuaded.

Mutes before liquids

27. 1. Before μ a labial mute becomes μ. Thus, *λελειπ-μαι, becomes λέλειμμαι, have been left.

2. Before μ a palatal mute becomes γ. Thus, *πεπλεκ-μαι becomes πέπλεγμαι have been twisted.

3. Before μ a lingual mute becomes σ. Thus, *πεπειθ-μαι becomes πέπεισμαι have been persuaded.

Mutes before σ

28. A labial mute before σ unites with it to form ψ (cf. § 12, 3). Thus, *λειπ-σω becomes λείψω shall leave, *φλεβ-ς becomes φλἐψ; vein, *γραφ-σω becomes γράφω shall write.

29. A palatal mute before σ unites with it to form ξ (cf. § 12, 3). Thus, *κορακ-ς becomes κόραξ raven, *φλογ-ς becomes φλόξ flame, *βηχ-ς becomes βήξ cough.

30⁸. A lingual mute, before σ is dropped. Thus, *σωματ-σι becomes σώμασι bodies (dat.), *ἐλπιδ-σι becomes ἐλπίδι hopes (dat.), *ὀρνῑθ-σι becomes ὄρνῑσι birds (dat.).

ν Before other consonants

31. When ν comes before a labial mute it changes to μ. Thus, *ἐν-πειρος becomes ἔμπειρος experienced, *ἐν-φανης becomes ἐμφανής visible, *ἐν-ψυχος becomes ἔμψυχος living.

32. When v comes before a palatal mute, it changes to γ-nasal. Thus, *συν-γενης; becomes συγγενής akin, *συν-χεω becomes συγχέω pour together.

33. When ν comes before λ, μ, or ρ it is assimilated. Thus, *ἐν-λειπω becomes ἐλλείπω leave in, *ἐν-μενω becomes ἐμμένω abide, *συν-ρεω becomes συρρέω flow together.

34. When ν comes before σ it is dropped (likewise ντ, and νθ, see § 30) and the preceding vowel is lengthened in compensation (see § 16). Thus, *μελαν-ς becomes μέλᾱς black, *λῡο-νσι becomes λῡ́ονσι they loose (§ 16, 1). Cf. § 99.

Disappearance of σ

35⁹. When σ comes between two consonants, it is regularly dropped, and when two sigmas are brought together by inflection, one of them is dropped. Thus, *ἐσταλ-σθε becomes ἔσταλθε you have been sent, and *τειχεσ-σι becomes τείχεσι walls (dat.).

36¹⁰. When σ stands before a vowel at the beginning of a word, it is often changed to the rough breathing: thus, ἵστημι set, for *σι-στημι (Latin sisto).

37. When a comes between two vowels, it is regularly dropped: thus, γένεος (contracted γένεους) of a race for *γενεσ-ος (Latin generis).

Metathesis

38. A vowel and a liquid are sometimes transposed. Thus, θάρσοσ and θράσοσ boldness.

1. Sometimes the vowel, standing after the liquid, has its long form (§ 13): τέμ-νω cut, perfect τέ-τμπ-κα have cut.

Consonants befoke ι

39. The vowel ι (which may sometimes have the value of a consonant), following certain consonants, gives rise to several changes. Thus:

1. With κ, χ, τ, or θ, an ι unites to form ττ (Ionic σσ, § 22): thus, φυλάττω guard, for *φυλάκ–ιω; νῆττα duck, for *νητ-ια; θάττων quicker, for *ταχ-ιων; (§ 41).

2. With γ or δ an ι unites to form ζ: μείζων greater, for *μεγ-ιων; ἐλπίζω hope, for ἐλπiδ-ιω.

3. With λ an ι forms λλ: βάλ-λω throw, for *βαλ-ιω.

4. With ν or ρ, an ι goes over to the preceding vowel and unites with it by contraction: μαίνομαι am mad, for *μαν-ιομαι.

40. The Greeks tried to avoid beginning two successive syllables with a rough mute (or a rough breathing). Thus, ἐ-τἐ–θην and ἐ-τύ-θην (instead of *ἐ-θε-θην and *ἐ-θυ-θην) are the aorists passive of τίθημι put and θῡ́ω sacrifice.

For the imperative ending –θι (changed to –τι) see § 233, 3; for the change of a rough mute to smooth in reduplication, see § 178.

41¹¹. For the same reason, a few roots beginning with θ, and ending in φ or χ, preserve the rough mute only at the beginning or the end. So, when, in the process of inflection, the rough mute at the end disappears, the smooth mute at the beginning becomes rough. For example, τριχ-ὀς hair, gen. sing., has for its nominative θρίξ; τρέφν nourish has for its future θρέψω; the root ταφ– becomes θαπ– in θάπ- in θάπ-τω bury.

42. Hiatus occurs when a word ending in a vowel is followed by a word beginning with a vowel.

Hiatus was usually avoided in Greek by means of (1) Crasis, (2) Elision, or (3) the addition of a Movable Consonant.

Crasis

43. Crasis (mingling») is the contraction of a vowel or diphthong at the end of a word with a vowel or diphthong at the beginning of the next word. It is indicated by the coronis (’) written over the contracted syllable.

Crasis in general follows the rules for contraction (§§ 18 and 19): thus, τοὐναντίον the contrary for τό έναντίον, έγᾦμαι I suppose for έγώ οἶμαι, θοἰμάτιον the cloak for τὸ (cf. § 44, 4). But some exceptions occur: thus, ταὐτό for τό αὐτό.

Note 1. If the first word ends in a diphthong, its final vowel is dropped before contraction: thus, κᾱ́γαθός for καὶ ἀγαθός.

Note 2. Synizesis between Two Words. In poetry a crasis, not indicated in writing, sometimes occurs between two words, and is called synizesis (see § 19, note 2). This happens only when the first word ends in a long vowel or diphthong: thus, μή οὐ, pronounced as one syllable.

Note 3. Apocope is the cutting off of a final short vowel before a consonant. Thus, πάρ, κάτ, for πάρα, κάτα. It affects chiefly prepositions, and is nearly confined to poetry.

Elision

44^{12 13 14}. Elision is the cutting off of a short vowel at the end of a word when the next word begins with a vowel. In place of the missing vowel, an apostrophe (’) is written: thus, ἐπ’ ἐμοί in my power, for ἐπὶ ἐμοί; ἕπτ’ ἦσαν were seven, for ἐπτὰ ἦσαν. (For the accent of ἕπτ’ see § 66.)

1. Elision is most frequent in prepositions, conjunctions, and familiar adverbs: for example, the final vowel in γέ, δέ, παρά, ἀλλά, μάλα, τάχα is frequently elided.

2. The vowel υ is never elided, nor is –ι in the dative of the third declension, nor the vowels of τά, τί, τό.

3. In the formation of compound words, elision occurs, but without being indicated by the apostrophe: thus, ἀπ-έχω keep away, from ἀπό and ἔχω; ἐπ-άνω on top, from ἐπί and ἄνω; ἀπ-έβην went away, aorist of ἀπο-βαίνω.

4. Whenever by elision a smooth mute and a rough breathing are brought together, the smooth mute becomes the cognate rough mute (§ 12, 2): thus, ἀφ’ὧν from which, for ἀπό ὧν; καθ-ίημι let down, from κατά and ἴημι.

45. ν Movable. – All words ending in –τι, all verbs of the third-person singular ending in -ε, and ἐδτί is, when they stand before a word beginning with a vowel, or at the end of a clause, regularly add a ν at the end. This ν is called ν movable: thus, πέμπουσι τὸν ἄνδρα they send the man, but πέμπουσιν ἄνδρα they send a man; εἶδε τήν θάλατταν he saw the sea, but εἶδεν ὄψιν he saw a vision.

46. The adverb οὐ before a vowel with the smooth breathing, becomes οὐκ: thus, οὐκ εἶδον did not see. Before a vowel with the rough breathing it becomes οὐχ (cf. § 44, 4): so οὐχ εἱλόμην did not choose.

47. The preposition ἐξ out of appears as ἐξ before words beginning with a vowel, and ἐκ before words beginning with a consonant: thus, ἐξ ἄστεως from town, but ἐκ τῆς πόλεως from the city.

48. The only consonants allowed standing at the end of a Greek word are ν, ρ, and ς.

Note. – Observe that words ending in ψ (= πς) or ξ (= κς) do not violate this rule.

49. In Greek, as in Latin, each single vowel or diphthong makes a separate syllable. For example, ὑγίεια, has four syllables.

50. In dividing a word into syllables a single consonant or any combination of consonants that can begin a word is customarily written with the following vowel: thus, ἱ-κα-νός suitable, ὄ-ψο-μαι shall see, ῥά-βδος wand, κά-μνω labour.

Other combinations of consonants are divided: thus, ἵπ-πος horse, ἐλ-πίς hope.

51. The last syllable of a word is called the Ultima, the next to the last the Penult, and the one before the penult the Antepenult.

Quantity of syllables

52. A syllable is long by Nature when it has a long vowel or a diphthong. Thus, in κρῑ-νοί-μην, all the syllables are long.

53¹⁵. A syllable is long by Position (or Convention) when its vowel is followed by two consonants or a double consonant (§ 12, 3). Thus, in ὄρ-τυξ; quail, both syllables are long by position.

Of the two consonants, one or both may be in the next word. Thus, in ἄλλος τόπος another place and ἄλλο στόμα another mouth the last syllable of the first word is long by position.

Note. – Observe, however, that the quantity of the vowel is not affected by position. The ε in λέξω is short, although the syllable in which it stands is long by «position.»

54¹⁶. When a vowel naturally short is followed by a mute and a liquid (§ 12) the length of the syllable is Common, that is, the syllable is used in verse either as long or short. Thus, in rewov child, τέκνον child, τυφλός blind, τί χρή, what is to be done? The first syllable is common.

Note. The mute and the liquid must be in the same word; otherwise the syllable is long by position.

ACCENT

55. The Greek accent consisted in a raising of the pitch of the accented syllable. It was not a stress accent like that of English.

56. In Greek there are three kinds of accent, the Acute (ʹ), the Grave (`), and the Circumflex ( ˆ ); the last being made up of the acute and the grave.

1. Every syllable of a Greek word had an accent, but, as the grave accent is of such frequent occurrence (standing on every syllable which has not the acute or circumflex), it was not written except in the case mentioned under § 67.

2. The marks of accent were not used in early times. They were invented about 200 b.c. for the help of foreigners and of others who were studying the greek language.

57. The marks of accent are written over the vowel of the accented syllable.

1. In case of a diphthong the accent stands over the second vowel, unless the second vowel is ι subscript: thus, αὐτοîς, αὐτούς; but αὐτῷ (cf. § 8, 2 and note).

2. When both breathing and accent belong to the same vowel, the acute or the grave accent is written after the breathing: thus, ὅλος whole, ὃς ἔσται who shall be. But the circumflex accent is written above the breathing: thus, ἦγε was leading.

3. When breathing and accent belong to a capital letter they are placed before it: thus, Ἕλλην Greek, Ἦλις Elis, Ἅιδης Hades (cf. § 8, 1).

Rules for accent

58. The circumflex accent can stand only on a syllable long by nature (§ 52); the acute may stand on a long or a short syllable.

59. The circumflex accent may stand only on one of the last two syllables of a word; the acute may stand only on one of the last three syllables.

60. Moreover, if the last syllable is long by nature (§ 52), the circumflex may stand only on the last syllable, and the acute only on one of the last two syllables.

61. A long penult followed by a short final syllable must, if it has a written accent, have the circumflex.

Note. Some further special rules of accent will be given under Inflection, but the position of the accents on Greek words must, in general, be learned by observation.

62. Examples of accented words are:

63. The diphthongs at and 01 at the end of a word have the effect of short vowels on the accent, except in the optative mood and in the adverb οἴκοι: thus, χῶραι lands, ἄνθρωποι men; but παιδεύοι, optative of παιδεύω educate.

64. Recessive Accent. A word is commonly said to have Recessive Accent when the written accent stands as far from the end of the word as the laws of accent (§§ 58–61) will allow. Thus, ἐλύθην was loosed, λῡον was loosing, θέατρον theatre, have recessive accent.

Accent of contracted syllables

65. When two syllables contract into one, in case either of the original syllables had a written accent (that is, the acute or the circumflex), the syllable resulting from the contraction retains a written accent; otherwise it has the unwritten grave (§ 56, 1). Thus, τῑμά-ει gives τῑμᾷ, but τῑ́μα–ε gives τῑ́μᾱ.

1. If the first of the two syllables originally had the acute, the acute combines with the unwritten grave (§ 56, 1) of the second syllable to form the circumflex. Thus, τῑμά-ω (i.e. τῑ́μά-ὼ) gives τῑμῶ.

2. But if the second of the two syllables had the acute, the syllable resulting from the contraction also has the acute (since it is plain that ˋ ˊ will not combine into

). Thus, ἑστα-ώς (i.e. ἓστὰ-ώς) gives ἑστώς.

Accent of elided words

66. In elision (§ 44) oxytone (§ 62) prepositions and conjunctions lose their written accent: thus, ἀλλ’ ἔφη but he said, for ἀλλὰ ἔφη; other words retain it, but on the preceding syllable: thus, ἕπτ’ ἦσαν were seven, for ἑπτὰ ἦσαν.

Note. In crasis (§ 43) the first of the two words loses its written accent.

Change of acute to grave

67. Wherever a word having the acute accent on the last syllable is followed by another word in close connection, its acute changes to the grave: thus, παρά beside, τόν the, but παρά τόν βασιλέα to the side of the king. (For τίς, see § 148, 1.)

68¹⁷. Anastrophe. A preposition of two syllables having the acute accent on the last syllable, when it follows the substantive with which it is used, or when it does the duty of a verb, shifts its written accent from the last syllable to the first: thus, τούτων πέρι about this; πάρα, for πάρεστι, it is allowed.

69. A few words of one syllable attach themselves so closely to the following word that they lose their own written accent. They are called Proclitics (from προκλῑ́ lean forward). They are:

The forms ὁ, ἡ, οἱ, αἱ, of the article the;

The conjunctions εἱ if, ὡς as;

The prepositions ἑν in, εἱς (ἑς) into, ἑξ (ἑκ, § 47) out of, ὡς to;

The adverb οὑ (οὑκ, οὑχ § 46) not.

1. When, however, a proclitic stands at the end of a sentence, or is followed by an enclitic (§ 70, 8), it receives a written accent. Thus, φῄς, ἢ οὔ; do you say yes or no? οὔ φημι I say no.

70. Some words of one or two syllables attach themselves so closely to the preceding word that they give up their own written accent. These words are called Enclitics (from ἑγλῑ́ lean upon). They are:

The pronouns μοῦ, μοί, μέ; σοῦ, σοί, σέ; οὗ, οἷ, ἕ and σφίδι. See however § 139, 2;

The indefinite pronoun τὶς, τὶ in all its forms, and the indefinite adverbs ποῦ, πῇ, ποῖ, ποθέν, ποτέ, πῶ, πῶς;

The present indicative of εἰμί am and φημί say, except the second persons singular εἶ, φῄς. (For the accent of ἐδτί see § 262, 1);

The particle’s γέ, τέ, τοί, πέρ.

1. If the word preceding an enclitic has the acute accent on either of the last two syllables, or the circumflex on the last syllable, its accent remains unchanged: thus, ἀνήρ τις a man, λόγων τινῶν (§ 71,4) of some words, χωρῶν τιυων of some lands.

2. If the word preceding an enclitic has the acute accent on the antepenult, or the circumflex on the penult, it adds an acute accent on the last syllable: thus, ἄνθρωποί τινες some men, γλῶττά a tongue.

3. A proclitic (§ 69) before an enclitic takes an acute accent: thus, εἴ τις if anybody, οὔ φασι, they deny (see § 69, 1).

4. If several enclitics follow each other, the last alone remains without written accent; each of the others receives an acute accent from the following enclitic: thus, εἴ πού τίς τινα [ἴδοι] if anybody [should see] anybody anywhere.

71. Accent of Enclitics Retained. – Enclitics retain their own accent:

1. When they begin a sentence, as εἰδὶν ἄνδρες there are men;

2. When they are emphatic, as ἀλλά δὲ λέτγω but you I mean;

3. When the vowel which would be affected by the enclitic has been elided (§ 44), as ταῦτ’ ἐστί, for ταῦτά ἐστι this is;

4. When an enclitic of two sjdlables follows a word which has the acute accent on the penult, as ἀνθρώπου τινός of a man.

Note. – Some words are so frequently combined with an enclitic that the combination comes to be regarded as one word. Thus, ὥστε so that (ὡς + τε), καίτοι although (καί + τοι), οὗτινος of whomsoever (οὗ + τινος), are not exceptions to the rule of accent given in §§ 59 and 61.

72. The Greek marks of punctuation are the period (.), colon (•), comma (‚), and mark of interrogation (;).

The colon is a point above the line, and it takes the place of the English colon and semicolon.

Note. The ancient Greeks seldom used any marks of punctuation, but wrote their words continuously. Thus, ΕΔΟΞΕΝΤΗΙΒΥΛΗΙΚΑΙΤΩΙΔΗΜΩΙ = ἔδοξεν τῇ βουλῇ καί τῷ δήμῳ It was voted by the Senate and the People.

Ancient greek writing on stone

(Of the Fifth Century b.c.)