Select Theological Readings. Part I

Orthodox history is marked outwardly by a series of sudden breaks: the capture of Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem by Arab Muslims; the burning of Kiev by the Mongols; the two sacks of Constantinople; the October Revolution in Russia. Yet these events, while they have transformed the external appearance of the Orthodox world, have never broken the inward continuity of the Orthodox Church. The thing that first strikes a stranger on encountering Orthodoxy is usually its air of antiquity, its apparent changelessness. He finds that the Orthodox still baptize by threefold immersion, as in the primitive Church; they still bring babies and small children to receive Holy Communion; in the Liturgy the deacon still cries out: ‘The doors! The doors!’ – recalling the early days when the church’s entrance was jealously guarded, and none but members of the Christian family could attend the family worship; the Creed is still recited without any additions.

These are but a few outward examples of something which pervades every aspect of Orthodox life. When the Orthodox are asked at contemporary inter-Church gatherings to summarize what they see as the distinctive characteristic of their Church¹, they often point precisely to its changelessness, its determination to remain loyal to the past, its sense of living continuity with the Church of ancient times. At the start of the eighteenth century, the Eastern Patriarchs said exactly the same to the Non-Jurors²:

“We preserve the Doctrine of the Lord uncorrupted, and firmly adhere to the Faith he delivered to us, and keep it free from blemish and diminution, as a Royal Treasure, and a monument of great price, neither adding any thing, nor taking any thing from it. ”³

This idea of living continuity is summed up for the Orthodox in the one word Tradition. “We do not change the everlasting boundaries which our fathers have set,” wrote John of Damascus, “but we keep the Tradition, just as we received it. ”⁴

The Orthodox are always talking about Tradition. What do they mean by the word? A tradition, says the Oxford Dictionary, is an opinion, belief, or custom handed down from ancestors to posterity. Christian Tradition, in that case, is the faith which Jesus Christ imparted to the Apostles, and which since the Apostles’ time has been handed down from generation to generation in the Church. ⁵

But to an Orthodox Christian, Tradition means something more concrete and specific than this. It means the books of the Bible; it means the Creed; it means the decrees of the Ecumenical Councils and the writings of the Fathers; it means the Canons, the Service Books, the Holy Icons – in fact, the whole system of doctrine, Church government, worship, spirituality and art which Orthodoxy has articulated over the ages.

The Orthodox Christians of today see themselves as heirs and guardians to a great inheritance received from the past, and they believe that it is their duty to transmit this inheritance unimpaired to the future.

Note that the Bible forms a part of Tradition. Sometimes Tradition is defined as ‘the oral teaching of Christ, not recorded in writing by his immediate disciples’ (Oxford Dictionary). Not only non-Orthodox but many Orthodox writers have adopted this way of speaking, treating Scripture and Tradition as two different things, two distinct sources of the Christian faith. But in reality there is only one source, since Scripture exists within Tradition. To separate and contrast the two is to impoverish the idea of both alike.

The Orthodox, while reverencing this inheritance from the past, are also well aware that not everything received from the past is of equal value. Among the various elements of Tradition, a unique pre-eminence belongs to the Bible, to the Creed, to the doctrinal definitions of the Ecumenical Councils: these things the Orthodox accept as something absolute and unchanging, something which cannot be cancelled or revised. The other parts of Tradition do not have quite the same authority. The decrees of Jassy⁶ or Jerusalem⁷ do not stand on the same level as the Nicene Creed, nor do the writings of Athanasius, or Symeon the New Theologian, occupy the same position as the Gospel of Saint John.

Not everything received from the past is of equal value, nor is everything received from the past necessarily true. As one of the bishops remarked at the Council of Carthage in 257: “The Lord said, I am truth. He did not say, I am custom. ”⁸ There is a difference between ‘Tradition’ and ‘traditions’: many traditions which the past has handed down are human and accidental – pious opinions (or worse), but not a true part of the one Tradition, the essential Christian message.

It is necessary to question the past. In Byzantine and post-Byzantine times, the Orthodox have not always been sufficiently critical in their attitude to the past, and the result has frequently been stagnation. Today this uncritical attitude can no longer be maintained. Higher standards of scholarship, increasing contacts with western Christians, the inroads of secularism and atheism, have forced the Orthodox in this present century to look more closely at their inheritance and to distinguish more carefully between Tradition and traditions. The task of discrimination is not always easy. It is necessary to avoid alike the error of the Old Believers and the error of the ‘Living Church’: the one party fell into an extreme conservatism which suffered no change whatever in traditions, the other into a Modernism or theological liberalism which undermined Tradition. Yet despite certain manifest handicaps, the Orthodox of today are perhaps in a better position to discriminate aright than their predecessors have been for many centuries; and often it is precisely their contact with the west which is helping them to see more and more clearly what is essential in their own inheritance.

True Orthodox fidelity to the past must always be a creative fidelity; for true Orthodoxy can never rest satisfied with a barren ‘theology of repetition,’ which, parrot-like, repeats accepted formulae without striving to understand what lies behind them. Loyalty to Tradition, properly understood, is not something mechanical, a passive and automatic process of handing down what has been received. An Orthodox thinker must see Tradition from within, he must enter into its inner spirit. In order to live within Tradition, it is not enough simply to give intellectual assent to a system of doctrine; for Tradition is far more than a set of abstract propositions – it is a life, a personal encounter with Christ in the Holy Spirit. Tradition is not only kept by the Church – it lives in the Church, it is the life of the Holy Spirit in the Church.

The Orthodox conception of Tradition is not static but dynamic, not a dead acceptance of the past but a living experience of the Holy Spirit in the present. Tradition, while inwardly changeless (for God does not change), is constantly assuming new forms, which supplement the old without superseding them. The Orthodox often speak as if the period of doctrinal formulation were wholly at an end, yet this is not the case. Perhaps in our own day new Ecumenical Councils will meet, and Tradition will be enriched by fresh statements of the faith.

This idea of Tradition as a living thing has been well expressed by Georges Florovsky:

“Tradition is the witness of the Spirit; the Spirit’s unceasing revelation and preaching of good tidings. . . To accept and understand Tradition we must live within the Church, we must be conscious of the grace-giving presence of the Lord in it; we must feel the breath of the Holy Ghost in it. . . Tradition is not only a protective, conservative principle; it is, primarily, the principle of growth and regeneration. . . Tradition is the constant abiding of the Spirit and not only the memory of words. ”⁹

Tradition is the witness of the Spirit: in the words of Christ, “When the Spirit of truth has come, he will guide you into all truth” (John. 16:13). It is this divine promise that forms the basis of the Orthodox devotion to Tradition.

1. Match the words on the left to their definitions on the right.

2. Match each word with a synonym.

3. Match each English word or phrase with a Russian equivalent.

Verbs

Collocations

Terms and terminological expressions

4. Translate the following words and phrases into Russian and learn them.

to baptize by threefold immersion

to receive Holy Communion

to attend worship/church service

to sing/recite the Creed

to remain loyal to the past

to preserve the Doctrine uncorrupted/unimpaired

to hand down from generation to generation

to fall into conservatism or theological liberalism

to keep Holy Tradition

to give Holy Communion

an inter-Church gathering/meeting

the Church of ancient times

the decrees of the Ecumenical Councils

the writings of the Fathers

the system of doctrine

Church government

spirituality

the Nicene Creed

5. Make up 5 sentences in English and 5 sentences in Russian using any of the words and expressions from exercises 3 and 4.

6. Fill in the correct particle or preposition in the following sentences.

1). In your final paragraph you should sum _______ your arguments.

2). The values that were handed _______ to us by our parents and grandparents are considered old-fashioned now.

3). He was asked to draw _______ proposals for reforming the law.

4). The old stories were passed _______ throughout the generations.

5). We firmly adhere _______ the Faith the Lord delivered to us.

6). He has fallen _______ despair.

7. Complete the following sentences with the suitable verbs.

Use the right tense in the passive or active form

to summarize / to assume / to exist / to revise / to hand down / to treat / to keep / to accept / to baptize / to impart

1). In the Orthodox Church babies _______ by threefold immersion.

2). The idea of living continuity with the Church of ancient times _______ for the Orthodox in the one word Tradition.

3). Christian Tradition is the faith which Jesus Christ _______ to the Apostles, and which since the Apostles’ time _______ from generation to generation in the Church.

4). The Bible, the Creed and the doctrinal definitions of the Ecumenical Councils _______ as something absolute and unchanging, something which cannot _______.

5). Holy Tradition not only _______ by the Church – it lives in the Church.

6). Tradition, while inwardly changeless, _______ constantly new forms, which supplement the old without superseding them.

7). Sometimes Scripture and Tradition _______ as two different things, two distinct sources of the Christian faith. But in reality there is only one source, since Scripture _______ within Tradition.

8. Put in the missing prepositions.

1). The Orthodox still baptize _______ threefold immersion, as _______ the primitive Church.

2). The Creed is still recited _______ any additions.

3). The Orthodox often point _______ Church’s changelessness, its determination to remain loyal _______ the past, its sense of living continuity _______ the Church of ancient times.

4). Among the various elements of Tradition, a unique pre-eminence belongs _______ the Bible, the Creed and the doctrinal definitions.

5). An Orthodox thinker must see Tradition _______ within.

9. Explain or comment on the following sentences.

1). The Christian Tradition is the faith which Jesus Christ imparted to the Apostles, and which since the Apostles’ time has been handed down from generation to generation in the Church.

2). The Orthodox, while reverencing this inheritance from the past, are also well aware that not everything received from the past is of equal value.

3). The decrees of Jassy or Jerusalem do not stand on the same level as the Nicene Creed, nor do the writings of Athanasius, or Symeon the New Theologian, occupy the same position as the Gospel of Saint John.

4). It is necessary to question the past.

5). True Orthodox fidelity to the past must always be a creative fidelity.

6). Loyalty to Tradition, properly understood, is not something mechanical, a passive and automatic process of handing down what has been received.

7). The Orthodox often speak as if the period of doctrinal formulation were wholly at an end, yet this is not the case.

8). This idea of living continuity is summed up for the Orthodox in the one word Tradition.

9). At the Liturgy the deacon still cries out: ‘The doors! The doors!’ – recalling the early days when the church’s entrance was jealously guarded.

10). The Orthodox of today are perhaps in a better position to discriminate aright than their predecessors have been for many centuries.

Key grammar points

Present Indefinite

Present Continuous

Past Indefinite

Present Perfect

Passive voice

Participles (present and past)

Gerund

Infinitive

-ing-nouns

Modals: can, must

Inversion (auxiliary verb before subject)

Subjunctive after as if/as though

Empty subject it

Cleft sentences

Questions for discussion

1). What can attract a stranger in the Orthodox Church?

2). Sum up what you see as the distinctive characteristic of the Orthodox Church.

3). What do the Orthodox mean by Holy Tradition?

4). How does Holy Scripture relate to Holy Tradition?

5). Is there any difference between the various elements of Holy Tradition?

6). Draw the line between Holy Tradition and various traditions in the Orthodox Church.

7). How do you understand the Orthodox conception of Holy Tradition?

The outward forms

Let us take in turn the different outward forms in which Tradition is expressed:

a. The Bible and the Church. The Christian Church is a Scriptural Church: Orthodoxy believes this just as firmly, if not more firmly than Protestantism. The Bible is the supreme expression of God’s revelation to man, and Christians must always be ‘People of the Book. ’ But if Christians are People of the Book, the Bible is the Book of the People; it must not be regarded as something set up over the Church, but as something that lives and is understood within the Church (that is why one should not separate Scripture and Tradition). It is from the Church that the Bible ultimately derives its authority, for it was the Church which originally decided which books form a part of Holy Scripture; and it is the Church alone which can interpret Holy Scripture with authority. There are many sayings in the Bible which by themselves are far from clear, and individual readers, however sincere, are in danger of error if they trust their own personal interpretation. “Do you understand what you are reading?” Philip asked the Ethiopian eunuch; and the eunuch replied: “How can I, unless someone guides me?” (Acts. 8:30). The Orthodox, when they read the Scripture, accept the guidance of the Church. When received into the Orthodox Church, a convert promises: ‘I will accept and understand Holy Scripture in accordance with the interpretation which was and is held by the Holy Orthodox Catholic Church of the East, our Mother. ’

b. The Text of the Bible: Biblical Criticism. The Orthodox Church has the same New Testament as the rest of Christendom. As its authoritative text for the Old Testament, it uses the ancient Greek translation known as the Septuagint. When this differs from the original Hebrew (which happens quite often), the Orthodox believe that the changes in the Septuagint were made under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit, and are to be accepted as part of God’s continuing revelation. The best known instance is Isaiah 7:14 (Is. 7:14) – where the Hebrew says ‘A young woman shall conceive and bear a son,’ which the Septuagint translates ‘A virgin shall conceive,’ etc. The New Testament follows the Septuagint text (Mat. 1:23).

The Hebrew version of the Old Testament contains thirty-nine books. The Septuagint contains in addition ten further books, not present in the Hebrew, which are known in the Orthodox Church as the ‘Deutero-Canonical Books’ (1 (alias 3) Esdras; Tobit; Judith; 1, 2 and 3Maccabees; Wisdom of Solomon; Ecclesiasticus; Baruch; Letter of Jeremias. In the west these books are commonly termed ‘The Apocrypha’). ¹⁰ These were declared by the Councils of Jassy (1642) and Jerusalem (1672) to be ‘genuine parts of Scripture;’ most Orthodox scholars at the present day, however, following the opinion of Athanasius and Jerome, consider that the Deutero-Canonical Books, although part of the Bible, stand on a lower footing than the rest of the Old Testament.

Christianity, if true, has nothing to fear from honest inquiry. Orthodoxy, while regarding the Church as the authoritative interpreter of Scripture, does not forbid the critical and historical study of the Bible, although hitherto Orthodox scholars have not been prominent in this field.

c. The Bible in worship. It is sometimes thought that the Orthodox attach less importance than western Christians to the Bible. Yet in fact Holy Scripture is read constantly at Orthodox Services: during the course of Matins and Vespers the entire Psalter is recited each week, and in Lent twice a week (Such is the rule laid down by the service books. In practice, in ordinary parish churches Matins and Vespers are not recited daily, but only at weekends and on feasts; and even then, unfortunately, the portions appointed from the Psalter are often abbreviated or (worse still) omitted entirely. ); Old Testament lessons (usually three in number) occur at Vespers on the eves of many feasts, and at the Sixth Hour and Vespers on weekdays in Lent; the reading of the Gospel forms the climax of Matins on Sundays and feasts; at the Liturgy a special Epistle and Gospel are assigned for each day of the year, so that the whole New Testament (except the Revelation of Saint John) is read at the Eucharist. The Nunc Dimittis¹¹ is used at Vespers; Old Testament canticles, with the Magnificat¹² and Benedictus¹³, are sung at Matins; the Lord’s Prayer is read at every service. Besides these specific extracts from Scripture, the whole text of each service is shot through with Biblical language, and it has been calculated that the Liturgy contains 98 quotations from the Old Testament and 114 from the New. ¹⁴

Orthodoxy regards the Bible as a verbal icon of Christ, the Seventh Council laying down that the Holy Icons and the Book of the Gospels should be venerated in the same way. In every church the Gospel Book has a place of honour on the altar; it is carried in procession at the Liturgy and at Matins on Sundays and feasts; the faithful kiss it and prostrate themselves before it. Such is the respect shown in the Orthodox Church for the Word of God.

1. Match the words on the left to their definitions on the right.

2. Match each word with a synonym.

3. Match each English word or phrase with a Russian equivalent.

Verbs

Collocations

Terms and terminological expressions

4. Translate the following words and phrases into Russian and learn them.

a convert

the faithful

the Orthodox

the Old Testament

the New Testament

the Book of the Gospels/the Gospel Book

the Septuagint

the Hebrew text

the Deutero-Canonical Books

the Apocrypha

the Revelation of St. John

the Psalter

an Epistle

the reading of the Gospel

an Old Testament lesson

the Lord’s Prayer

under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit

the critical and historical study of the Bible

the Orthodox Services: the Liturgy, Vespers, Matins, Hours, All-night Vigil

the expression of God’s revelation to man

the Eve of the Theophany

to assign a Gospel reading for each day of the year

to accept the guidance of the Church

to be declared by the Council to be

the Council lays down that

to interpret Holy Scripture

to go in a procession

to prostrate oneself

to make a prostration

to make a bow

to kneel

5. Make up 5 sentences in English and 5 sentences in Russian using any of the words and expressions from exercises 3 and 4.

6. Fill in the correct particle or preposition in the following sentences.

1). Many students derived enormous satisfaction _______ the course.

2). The Romance family of languages consists _______ French, Spanish, Italian, and several other languages.

3). The Geneva Convention lays _______ conditions for the treatment of prisoners of war.

7. Complete the following sentences with the suitable verbs.

Use the right tense in the passive or active form

to make / to read / to lay down / to sing / to assign / to omit / to venerate / to understand / to differ / to regard

1). The Bible must not _______ as something set up over the Church, but as something that lives and _______ within the Church.

2). When the Septuagint _______ from the original Hebrew, the Orthodox believe that the changes in it _______ under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit.

3). Holy Scripture _______ constantly at various Orthodox Services.

4). The rule of reading the whole Psalter each week _______ by the service books.

5). Unfortunately the readings from the Psalter often _______.

6). At the Liturgy a special Epistle and Gospel _______ for each day of the year.

7). A lot of beautiful canticles _______ at Orthodox Services.

8). The Holy Icons and the Book of the Gospels _______ in the same way by the Orthodox.

8. Put in the missing prepositions.

1). In some cases the Septuagint differs _______ the original Hebrew text.

2). In practice, _______ ordinary parish churches Matins and Vespers are not recited daily, but only _______ weekends and _______ feasts.

3). Old Testament lessons (usually three _______ number) occur _______ Vespers _______ the eves of many feasts and _______ the Sixth Hour and Vespers _______ weekdays _______ Lent.

4). In every church the Gospel Book has a place of honour _______ the altar; it is carried _______ procession _______ the Liturgy and _______ Matins _______ Sundays and feasts.

9. Explain or comment on the following sentences.

1). The Bible must not be regarded as something set up over the Church, but as something that lives and is understood within the Church.

2). It is from the Church that the Bible ultimately derives its authority.

3). The changes in the Septuagint were made under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit, and are to be accepted as part of God’s continuing revelation.

4). Most Orthodox scholars, following the opinion of Athanasius and Jerome, consider that the Deutero-Canonical Books, although part of the Bible, stand on a lower footing than the rest of the Old Testament.

5). Orthodoxy, while regarding the Church as the authoritative interpreter of Scripture, does not forbid the critical and historical study of the Bible, although hitherto Orthodox scholars have not been prominent in this field.

6). Orthodoxy regards the Bible as a verbal icon of Christ, the Seventh Council laying down that the Holy Icons and the Book of the Gospels should be venerated in the same way.

Key grammar points

Present Indefinite

Past Indefinite

Present Perfect

Passive voice

Participles (present and past)

-ing-nouns

Modals: must, should, be to

Cleft sentences

Absolute participle construction

(participle clause with its own subject)

Questions for discussion

1). How can an Orthodox reader interpret and understand unclear sayings in the Bible?

2). What is the difference between the Hebrew text of the Old Testament and the Septuagint?

3). What is the Apocrypha and its place in the Old Testament?

4). How is the Bible used in Orthodox worship?

5). What is the Orthodox attitude to Holy Scripture?

The doctrinal definitions of an Ecumenical Council are infallible. Thus in the eyes of the Orthodox Church, the statements of faith put out by the Seven Councils possess, along with the Bible, an abiding and irrevocable authority.

The most important of all the Ecumenical statements of faith is the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed, which is read or sung at every celebration of the Eucharist, and also daily at the Midnight Office and at Compline. The other two Creeds used by the west, the Apostles’ Creed and the ‘Athanasian Creed’ do not possess the same authority as the Nicene, because they have not been proclaimed by an Ecumenical Council. The Orthodox honour the Apostles’ Creed as an ancient statement of faith, and accept all its teaching; but it is simply a local western Baptismal Creed, never used in the Services of the Eastern Patriarchates. The ‘Athanasian Creed’ likewise is not used in Orthodox worship, but it is sometimes printed (without the Filioque) in the Horologion (Book of Hours).

The formulation of Orthodox doctrine, as we have seen, did not cease with the Seventh Ecumenical Council. Since 787 there have been two chief ways whereby the Church has expressed its mind: a). definitions by Local Councils (that is, councils attended by members of one or more Patriarchates or autocephalous Churches, but not claiming to represent the Orthodox Catholic Church as a whole) and b). letters or statements of faith put out by individual bishops. While the doctrinal decisions of General Councils are infallible, those of a Local Council or an individual bishop are always liable to error; but if such decisions are accepted by the rest of the Church, then they come to acquire Ecumenical authority (i. e. a universal authority similar to that possessed by the doctrinal statements of an Ecumenical Council). The doctrinal decisions of an Ecumenical Council cannot be revised or corrected, but must be accepted in their entirety; but the Church has often been selective in its treatment of the acts of Local Councils: in the case of the seventeenth century Councils, for example, their statements of faith have in part been received by the whole Orthodox Church, but in part set aside or corrected.

The following are the chief Orthodox doctrinal statements since 787:

1. The Encyclical Letter of Saint Photius (867).

2. The First Letter of Michael Cerularius to Peter of Antioch (1054).

3. The decisions of the Councils of Constantinople in 1341 and 1351 on the Hesychast Controversy.

4. The Encyclical Letter of Saint Mark of Ephesus (1440–1441).

5. The Confession of Faith by Gennadius, Patriarch of Constantinople (1455–1456).

6. The Replies of Jeremias the Second to the Lutherans (1573–1581).

7. The Confession of Faith by Metrophanes Kritopoulos (1625).

8. The Orthodox Confession by Peter of Moghila, in its revised form (ratified by the Council of Jassy, 1642).

9. The Confession of Dositheus (ratified by the Council of Jerusalem, 1672).

10. The Answers of the Orthodox Patriarchs to the Non-Jurors (1718, 1723).

11. The Reply of the Orthodox Patriarchs to Pope Pius the Ninth (1848).

12. The Reply of the Synod of Constantinople to Pope Leo the Thirteenth (1895).

13. The Encyclical Letters by the Patriarchate of Constantinople on Christian unity and on the ‘Ecumenical Movement’ (1920, 1952).

These documents – particularly items 5–9 – are sometimes called the ‘Symbolical Books’ of the Orthodox Church, but many Orthodox scholars today regard this title as misleading and do not use it.

1. Match the words on the left to their definitions on the right.

2. Match each word with a synonym.

3. Match each English word or phrase with a Russian equivalent.

Verbs

Collocations

Terms and terminological expressions

4. Translate the following words and phrases into Russian and learn them

the doctrinal definitions of Ecumenical/General Councils

the doctrine of papal infallibility

the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed

the Orthodox Services: Midnight Office, Compline, Hours, Typika

the Filioque

the formulation of Orthodox doctrine

the Orthodox Catholic Church

the Eastern Patriarchates

the acts of Local Councils

an Encyclical Letter

the Hesychast Controversy

the Confession of Faith

the Christian unity

the Ecumenical Movement

5. Make up 5 sentences in English and 5 sentences in Russian using any of the words and expressions from exercises 3 and 4.

6. Fill in the correct particle or preposition in the following sentences.

1). A lot of the information that is put _______ on the Internet is not totally accurate.

2). I’ll ask my lawyer to draw _______ a contract for you.

7. Complete the following sentences with the suitable verbs.

Use the right tense in the passive or active form

to sing / to come / to correct / to use / to accept / to revise / to possess / to put out

1). In the eyes of the Orthodox Church the statements of faith which _______ by the Seven Councils _______ an abiding and irrevocable authority.

2). The Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed _______ at every celebration of the Liturgy.

3). The Apostles’ Creed and the ‘Athanasian Creed’ _______ at Orthodox worship.

4). If the decisions of a Local Council _______ by the rest of the Church, then they _______ to acquire Ecumenical authority.

5). The doctrinal decisions of an Ecumenical Council cannot _______ or _______.

8. Put in the missing prepositions.

1). The Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed is read or sung _______ every celebration of the Eucharist.

2). The formulation of Orthodox doctrine did not cease _______ the Seventh Ecumenical Council.

3). The doctrinal definitions formulated _______ the Ecumenical Councils are infallible.

9. Explain or comment on the following sentences.

1). The other two Creeds used by the west, the Apostles’ Creed and the ‘Athanasian Creed,’ do not possess the same authority as the Nicene, because they have not been proclaimed by an Ecumenical Council.

2). Since 787 there have been two chief ways whereby the Church has expressed its mind: a). definitions by Local Councils (that is, councils attended by members of one or more Patriarchates or autocephalous Churches, but not claiming to represent the Orthodox Catholic Church as a whole) and b). letters or statements of faith put out by individual bishops.

3). The doctrinal decisions of an Ecumenical Council cannot be revised or corrected, but must be accepted in their entirety.

Key grammar points

Present Indefinite

Past Indefinite

Present Perfect

Passive voice

Participles (present and past)

Modals: can, must

Questions for discussion

1. Explain the difference between various ancient Creeds.

2. How has the Church formulated Orthodox doctrine since 787, and how had it done it before?

3. Show the difference between an Ecumenical Council and a Local Council.

4. Can the decisions of a Local Council acquire Ecumenical authority?

The definitions of the Councils must be studied in the wider context of the Fathers. But as with Local Councils, so with the Fathers, the judgment of the Church is selective: individual writers have at times fallen into error and at times contradict one another. Patristic wheat needs to be distinguished from Patristic chaff. The Orthodox must not simply know and quote the Fathers; they must enter into the spirit of the Fathers and acquire a ‘Patristic mind’, and must treat the Fathers not merely as relics from the past, but as living witnesses and contemporaries.

The Orthodox Church has never attempted to define exactly who the Fathers are, still less to classify them in order of importance. But it has a particular reverence for the writers of the fourth century, and especially for those whom it terms ‘the Three Great Hierarchs’: Basil the Great, Gregory of Nazianzus (known in Orthodoxy as Gregory the Theologian), and John Chrysostom. In the eyes of Orthodoxy the ‘Age of the Fathers’ did not come to an end in the fifth century, for many later writers are also ‘Fathers’ – Maximus the Confessor, John of Damascus, Theodore of Stoudios, Symeon the New Theologian, Gregory Palamas, Mark of Ephesus. Indeed, it is dangerous to look on ‘the Fathers’ as a closed cycle of writings belonging wholly to the past, for might not our own age produce a new Basil or Athanasius? To say that there can be no more Fathers is to suggest that the Holy Spirit has deserted the Church.

The Orthodox Church is not as much given to making formal dogmatic definitions as is the Roman Catholic Church. But it would be false to conclude that because some belief has never been specifically proclaimed as a dogma by Orthodoxy, it is therefore not a part of Orthodox Tradition, but merely a matter of private opinion. Certain doctrines, never formally defined, are yet held by the Church with an unmistakable inner conviction, an unruffled unanimity, which is just as binding as an explicit formulation. “Some things we have from written teaching,” said Saint Basil, “others we have received from the Apostolic Tradition handed down to us in a mystery; and both these things have the same force for piety. ”¹⁵

This inner Tradition ‘handed down to us in a mystery’ is preserved above all in the Church’s worship. Lex orandi lex credendi: men’s faith is expressed in their prayer. Orthodoxy has made few explicit definitions about the Eucharist and the other Sacraments, about the next world, the Mother of God, the saints, and the faithful departed: Orthodox belief on these points is contained mainly in the prayers and hymns used at Orthodox Services. Nor is it merely the words of the services which are a part of Tradition; the various gestures and actions – immersion in the waters of Baptism, the different anointings with oil, the sign of the Cross, and so on – all have a special meaning, and all express in symbolical or dramatic form the truths of the faith.

1. Match the words on the left to their definitions on the right.

2. Match each word with a synonym.

3. Match each English word or phrase with a Russian equivalent.

Verbs

Collocations

Terms and terminological expressions

4. Translate the following words and phrases into Russian and learn them.

Patristic theology

living witnesses and contemporaries

immersion in the waters of Baptism

Basil the Great

Gregory of Nazianzus/Gregory the Theologian

John Chrysostom

the ‘Age of the Fathers’

Maximus the Confessor

John of Damascus

Theodore of Stoudios

Symeon the New Theologian

Gregory Palamas

Mark of Ephesus

the consensus of the Fathers

to enter into the spirit of the Fathers

to acquire a ‘Patristic mind’

to make/create formal dogmatic definitions

to hold something with an unmistakable inner conviction

to hand down the Apostolic Tradition

to preserve/keep Tradition

to study something in the context of the Fathers

to express in symbolical form the truths of the faith

5. Make up 5 sentences in English and 5 sentences in Russian using any of the words and expressions from exercises 3 and 4.

6. Fill in the correct particle or preposition in the following sentences.

1). The ring was handed _______ to her from her grandmother.

2). It could be a problem, but we don’t need to enter _______ that just yet.

3). The boat belongs _______ one of the local fishermen.

7. Complete the following sentences with the suitable verbs.

Use the right tense in the passive or active form

to define / to preserve / to fall / to contain / to desert / to treat / to hold / to attempt

1). The Orthodox Church never _______ to classify the Fathers in order of importance.

2). The Fathers must not _______ merely as relics from the past, but as living witnesses and contemporaries.

3). The Church _______ certain doctrines which never _______ formally.

4). The Apostolic Tradition ‘handed down to us in a mystery’ _______ above all in the Church’s worship.

5). The Orthodox teaching on many points _______ mainly in the prayers and hymns used at Orthodox services.

6). Some individual Church writers at times_______ into error.

7). To say that there can be no more Fathers is to suggest that the Holy Spirit _______ the Church.

8. Put in the missing prepositions.

1). Patristic wheat needs to be distinguished _______ Patristic chaff.

2). The Orthodox Church has a particular reverence _______ the writers of the fourth century.

3). Certain doctrines, never formally defined, are yet held _______ the Church _______ an unmistakable inner conviction.

4). The immersion in the waters of Baptism, the different anointings _______ oil, the sign of the Cross, and so on – all have a special meaning, and all express _______ symbolical or dramatic form the truths of the faith.

9. Explain or comment on the following sentences.

1). The definitions of the Councils must be studied in the wider context of the Fathers.

2). Indeed, it is dangerous to look on ‘the Fathers’ as a closed cycle of writings belonging wholly to the past, for might not our own age produce a new Basil or Athanasius?

3). It would be false to conclude that because some belief has never been specifically proclaimed as a dogma by Orthodoxy, it is therefore not a part of Orthodox Tradition, but merely a matter of private opinion.

4). “Some things we have from written teaching,” said Saint Basil, “others we have received from the Apostolic Tradition handed down to us in a mystery; and both these things have the same force for piety. ”

5). Nor is it merely the words of the services which are a part of Tradition.

Key grammar points

Present Indefinite

Past Indefinite

Present Perfect

Passive voice

Participles (present and past)

Modals: must, might, would

Inversion (auxiliary verb before subject)

Gerund

Infinitive

-ing-nouns

Empty subject it

Cleft sentences

Questions for discussion

1. What is the Church’s attitude to studying the Fathers’ inheritance?

2. Explain the expression “The Age of the Fathers”.

3. How do we treat certain doctrines which haven’t been formally proclaimed as dogmas?

4. How do you understand Saint Basil’s words about some things which “we have received from the Apostolic Tradition handed down to us in a mystery”?

Besides doctrinal definitions, the Ecumenical Councils drew up Canons, dealing with Church organization and discipline; other Canons were made by Local Councils and by individual bishops. Theodore Balsamon, Zonaras, and other Byzantine writers compiled collections of Canons, with explanations and commentaries. The standard modern Greek commentary, the Pedalion (‘Rudder’), published in 1800, is the work of that indefatigable saint, Nicodemus of the Holy Mountain.

The Canon Law of the Orthodox Church has been very little studied in the west, and as a result western writers sometimes fall into the mistake of regarding Orthodoxy as an organization with virtually no outward regulations. On the contrary, the life of Orthodoxy has many rules, often of great strictness and rigour. It must be confessed, however, that at the present day many of the Canons are difficult or impossible to apply, and have fallen widely into disuse. When and if a new General Council of the Church is assembled, one of its chief tasks may well be the revision and clarification of Canon Law.

The doctrinal definitions of the Councils possess an absolute and unalterable validity which Canons as such cannot claim; for doctrinal definitions deal with eternal truths, Canons with the earthly life of the Church, where conditions are constantly changing and individual situations are infinitely various. Yet between the Canons and the dogmas of the Church there exists an essential connexion: Canon Law is simply the attempt to apply dogma to practical situations in the daily life of each Christian. Thus in a relative sense the Canons form a part of Holy Tradition.

The Tradition of the Church is expressed not only through words, not only through the actions and gestures used in worship, but also through art – through the line and colour of the Holy Icons. An icon is not simply a religious picture designed to arouse appropriate emotions in the beholder; it is one of the ways whereby God is revealed to man. Through icons the Orthodox Christian receives a vision of the spiritual world. Because the icon is a part of Tradition, the icon painter is not free to adapt or innovate as he pleases; for his work must reflect, not his own aesthetic sentiments, but the mind of the Church. Artistic inspiration is not excluded, but it is exercised within certain prescribed rules. It is important that an icon painter should be a good artist, but it is even more important that he should be a sincere Christian, living within the spirit of Tradition, preparing himself for his work by means of Confession and Holy Communion.

Such are the primary elements which from an outward point of view make up the Tradition of the Orthodox Church – Scripture, Councils, Fathers, Liturgy, Canons, Icons. These things are not to be separated and contrasted, for it is the same Holy Spirit which speaks through them all, and together they make up a single whole, each part being understood in the light of the rest.

It has sometimes been said that the underlying cause for the break-up of western Christendom in the sixteenth century was the separation between theology and mysticism, between liturgy and personal devotion, which existed in the later Middle Ages. Orthodoxy for its part has always tried to avoid any such division. All true Orthodox theology is mystical; just as mysticism divorced from theology becomes subjective and heretical, so theology, when it is not mystical, degenerates into an arid scholasticism, ‘academic’ in the bad sense of the word.

Theology, mysticism, spirituality, moral rules, worship, art: these things must not be kept in separate compartments. Doctrine cannot be understood unless it is prayed: a theologian, said Evagrius, is one who knows how to pray, and he who prays in spirit and in truth is by that very act a theologian. ¹⁶ And doctrine, if it is to be prayed, must also be lived: theology without action, as Saint Maximus put it, is the theology of demons. ¹⁷ The Creed belongs only to those who live it. Faith and love, theology and life, are inseparable. In the Byzantine Liturgy, the Creed is introduced with the words: “Let us love one another, that with one mind we may confess Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, Trinity one in essence and undivided. ” This exactly expresses the Orthodox attitude to Tradition. If we do not love one another, we cannot love God; and if we do not love God, we cannot make a true confession of faith and cannot enter into the inner spirit of Tradition, for there is no other way of knowing God than to love Him.

1. Match the words on the left to their definitions on the right.

2. Match each word with a synonym.

3. Match each English word or phrase with a Russian equivalent.

Verbs

Collocations

Terms and terminological expressions

4. Translate the following words and phrases into Russian and learn them.

the Ecumenical Councils

the Byzantine writers

the Pedalion/Rudder

Saint Nicodemus of the Holy Mountain

the Canon Law of the Orthodox Church

the revision and clarification of Canon Law

the earthly life of the Church

the mind of the Church

the break-up of the western Christendom

the separation between theology and mysticism

to possess an absolute and unalterable validity

to express the Tradition of the Church through the words, actions, gestures and art

to receive a vision of the spiritual world

to live within the spirit of Tradition

to make up the Tradition of the Orthodox Church

to understand each part in the light of the rest

to confess Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, Trinity one in essence and undivided

to make a true confession of faith

to enter into the inner spirit of Tradition

5. Make up 5 sentences in English and 5 sentences in Russian using any of the words and expressions from exercises 3 and 4.

6. Fill in the correct particle or preposition in the following sentences.

1). The house has belonged _______ her family for three or four generations.

2). It could be a problem, but we don’t need to enter _______ that just yet.

3). These are the countries that make _______ the United Nations.

4). His books all deal _______ the events leading up to the war.

5). The match quickly degenerated _______ violence.

7. Complete the following sentences with the suitable verbs.

Use the right tense in the passive or active form

to hold / to possess / to draw up / to try / to make up / to change / to deal with / to compile

1). Besides doctrinal definitions, a number of Canons ______ by the Ecumenical Councils.

2). A few collections of Canons with explanations and commentaries ______ by Byzantine writers.

3). The doctrinal definitions of the Councils ______ eternal truths, Canons with the earthly life of the Church, where conditions ______ constantly.

4). When and if a new General Council of the Church ______, one of its chief tasks may well be the revision and clarification of Canon Law.

5). The doctrinal definitions of the Councils ______ an absolute and unalterable validity.

6). From an outward point of view the Tradition of the Orthodox Church ______ of such primary elements as Scripture, Councils, Fathers, Liturgy, Canons, Icons.

7). Orthodoxy always ______ to avoid the separation between theology and mysticism.

8. Put in the missing prepositions.

1). It must be confessed, however, that ______ the present day many of the Canons are difficult or impossible to apply, and have fallen widely ______ disuse.

2). Canon Law is simply the attempt to apply dogma ______ practical situations ______ the daily life of each Christian.

3). An icon is one of the ways whereby God is revealed ______ man.

4). Artistic inspiration is not excluded, but it is exercised ______ certain prescribed rules.

5). It has sometimes been said that the underlying cause ______ the break-up of western Christendom ______ the sixteenth century was the separation ______ theology and mysticism.

9. Explain or comment on the following sentences.

1). Besides doctrinal definitions, the Ecumenical Councils drew up Canons, dealing with Church organization and discipline.

2). The Canon Law of the Orthodox Church has been very little studied in the west, and as a result western writers sometimes fall into the mistake of regarding Orthodoxy as an organization with virtually no outward regulations.

3). It must be confessed, however, that at the present day many of the Canons are difficult or impossible to apply.

4). When and if a new General Council of the Church is assembled, one of its chief tasks may well be the revision and clarification of Canon Law.

5). It is important that an icon painter should be a good artist, but it is even more important that he should be a sincere Christian, living within the spirit of Tradition, preparing himself for his work by means of Confession and Holy Communion.

6). These things are not to be separated and contrasted, for it is the same Holy Spirit which speaks through them all, and together they make up a single whole, each part being understood in the light of the rest.

7). All true Orthodox theology is mystical; just as mysticism divorced from theology becomes subjective and heretical, so theology, when it is not mystical, degenerates into an arid scholasticism.

Key grammar points

Present Indefinite

Present Continuous

Past Indefinite

Present Perfect

Passive voice

Participles (present and past)

Gerund

Infinitive

Modals: can, may, must, should, be to

Infinitive structures (adjective+infinitive)

Present subjunctive after certain verbs and adjectives

Empty subject it

Cleft sentences

Absolute participle construction (participle clause with its own subject)

Questions for discussion

1. What do the Church canons deal with?

2. How can Canon Law be applied in the Church at the present day?

3. What is the difference and the connection between the canons and the dogmas of Church?

4. Explain the meaning of Holy icons in the Church Tradition.

5. What should be an icon painter’s attitude to his or her work?

6. How should we treat different elements of Holy Tradition?

7. What is the place of mysticism in the Orthodox theology?

8. What is the true understanding of Orthodox Doctrine?

adj. = adjective

adv. = adverb

conj. = conjunction

prep. = preposition

pron. = pronoun

n. = noun

v. = verb

h7 The inner meaning of Tradition

The Bible

The Seven Ecumenical Councils and Later Councils

The Fathers and The Liturgy

Canon Law and Icons

Theology

1. Bishop Kallistos Ware. The Inner Kingdom. N. Y.: St. Vladimir’s Seminary Press, 2001.

2. Bishop Kallistos Ware. The Orthodox Way. N. Y.: St. Vladimir’s Seminary Press, 1999.

3. Ware Timothy. The Orthodox Church. New Edition. London: Penguin Books, 1997.

Grammar

1. Raymond Murphy. English Grammar in Use. Cambridge University.

2. John Eastwood. Oxford Learner’s Grammar. Oxford University Press.

3. John Eastwood. Oxford Guide to English Grammar. Oxford University Press.

4. Michael Swan. Practical English Usage. Oxford University Press.

5. Michael Swan, Catherine Walter. Oxford English Grammar Course. Oxford University Press.

Vocabulary

1. Stuart Redman. English Vocabulary in Use. Pre-Intermediate and Intermediate. Cambridge University Press.

2. Michael McCarthy, Felicity O’Dell. Academic Vocabulary in Use. Cambridge University Press.

3. Michael McCarthy, Felicity O’Dell. English Collocations in Use. Cambridge University Press.

4. Michael McCarthy, Felicity O’Dell. English Phrasal Verbs in Use. Cambridge University Press.

5. Michael McCarthy, Felicity O’Dell. English Idioms in Use. Cambridge University Press.

Dictionaries

1. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English.

2. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary.

3. Longman Active Study Dictionary.

4. Мюллер В. К. и другие. Новый англо-русский словарь. М.: Русский язык, 1995.

5. Русско-английский словарь. Под общим руководством А. И. Смирницкого. М.: Русский язык, 1981.

6. Таубе А. М. , Даглиш Р. С. Современный русско-английский словарь. М.: Русский язык, 2001.

7. Азаров А. А. Большой англо-русский словарь религиозной лексики. М. , 2004.

8. Азаров А. А. Русско-английский словарь религиозной лексики. М. , 2002.

9. М. Волович, К. Зоркий, М. Макаров. Англо-русский словарь в помощь христианскому переводчику. М. , 1997.

10. The Blackwell Dictionary of Eastern Christianity. Edited by Ken Parry, David J. Melling, Dimitri Brady, Sidney H. Griffith and John F. Healey. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 1999.

11. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. Edited by F. L. Cross and E. A. Livingstone. Oxford University Press, 1997.

12. The Encyclopedia of Eastern Orthodox Christianity. Edited by John Anthony McGuckin. Blackwell Publishing, 2011.